tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-71274788428023048332024-03-13T22:00:17.329-06:00Res ObscuraA compendium of obscure things.Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.comBlogger98125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-17755427302427053862023-09-14T15:20:00.003-06:002023-09-14T15:21:07.795-06:00Res Obscura has moved to Substack<p>Hello readers! After 13 years, I've decided to turn the Res Obscura blog into the <a href="https://resobscura.substack.com">Res Obscura Substack newsletter</a>. Very little is changing, excerpt for the fact that I've returned to writing it regularly: I'm aiming for weekly posts about the stranger corners of history, focused mainly around my research interests of the history of science and medicine, globalization, empire, drugs, etc. It remains free to read, with no ads. </p><p>Please consider signing up here:</p>
<iframe frameborder="0" height="320" scrolling="no" src="https://resobscura.substack.com/embed" style="background: white; border: 1px solid #EEE;" width="480"></iframe>Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0Santa Cruz, CA, USA36.9741171 -122.03079638.6638832638211554 -157.18704630000002 65.284350936178839 -86.8745463tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-45144353302167436392019-12-13T15:44:00.000-06:002019-12-16T16:40:24.498-06:001950s Smart Homes and the Longevity of Design<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"><i><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Aesthetic modes can be surprisingly persistent, even as technologies change.</span></i></span></td></tr>
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Electric light strips automatically illuminate as the young couple approach the house's front steps. They pause before a pearlescent circle embedded in the wood of the door – it's a tiny security camera, beaming their image onto a screen on the kitchen counter within.<br />
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Following a push-button approval from the woman inside, the door unlocks automatically. Success!<br />
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These are screenshots from a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jyrTgtPTz3M">promotional film</a> made by the Westinghouse Corporation in the mid 1950s. The film advertised Westinghouse's vision of the "Total Electric Home": one of the earliest and most detailed previews of what is now known as a smart home.<br />
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This home of the future doesn't just use technology to heat, cook, cool, and light. It also "entertains, encourages hobbies, makes it the easiest way ever for you and your family to be happier, healthier, to live fuller lives."<br />
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According to an <a href="http://thriftshopromantic.blogspot.com/2008/06/futures-so-bright-inside-1950s-total.html">accompanying booklet</a>,<br />
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When guests approach your Total Electric Home, a soft glow of Rayescent (TM) lamps along the entrance path guides them up to the entrance. Additional lights go on automatically as they come near... When guests arrive at the door, a television camera takes their picture and transmits it automatically to closed-circuit monitors located throughout the house. As you view your guests, you'll be able to welcome them over the voice intercom.</blockquote>
Some of the innovations inside the home are not terribly impressive, even from the perspective of the 1980s.<br />
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For instance, the promotional video boasts that “the temperature of each room in the Total Electric Home can be set individually," via this overly-complicated "weather control center."<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>"The pride and joy of the man of the house is the 'weather control center.'"</i></td></tr>
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The barometric pressure read-out and the sidewalk de-icers are kind of cool, I guess:<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>"In summer, an automatic sensor starts the lawn sprinkers when the lawn gets thirsty." </i></td></tr>
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To my eyes, though, the actual smart home technology in this section looks garish and seems difficult to use. On the other hand, the blonde wood panelling on the walls is, to me, timeless and appealing.</div>
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The situation is similar when it comes to other parts of the house: bold technological claims that would sound prosaic within the lifetimes of the actors involved. The film hypes the washer/dryer unit as a "program computer... that can think," but it's actually just a push-button system that has different settings for different types of clothing.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>"It’s the first home laundry… that can think.”</i></td></tr>
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By contrast, the combination barbecue and fireplace (!) looks far less dated than the other elements in the house, as does the beautiful living room. The most futuristic elements of this home aren't the "thinking machines" – they're the elements of mid-century modern design, mostly made out of age-old materials like copper and wood. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Detail from a Westinghouse promotional brochure.</i></td></tr>
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The whole video is <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jyrTgtPTz3M">worth watching in full</a> – don't miss the microfilm cookbook in the kitchen.</div>
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The Westinghouse Electric Home shown in this film was for show, but many elements of 1950s smart home design aesthetics and technology did end up in production. </div>
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The science fiction author Robert Heinlein and his wife Virginia were profiled in one representative example in the <a href="https://www.nitrosyncretic.com/rah/pm652-art-hi.html">June, 1952 issue of </a><i><a href="https://www.nitrosyncretic.com/rah/pm652-art-hi.html">Popular Mechanics</a>. </i>The Heinlein's Colorado Springs house was their own take on a connected home of the future:</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-U2ayo3li4QA/XfQCTgmuE3I/AAAAAAAAEKk/6qwwSPwCwYMY8MVN8IBR41R6uwKld70gACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/heinlein.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="808" data-original-width="1470" height="350" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-U2ayo3li4QA/XfQCTgmuE3I/AAAAAAAAEKk/6qwwSPwCwYMY8MVN8IBR41R6uwKld70gACLcBGAsYHQ/s640/heinlein.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Their home in Bonny Noon, California, near the UC Santa Cruz campus, continued the same style.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Courtesy UC Santa Cruz Special Collections. (Fun fact – the other photographs in this folder were candid shots of a young L. Ron Hubbard!)</i></td></tr>
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From my perspective, the most futuristic thing about these homes is not "cybernetic" circuitry and electronic gizmos of the technology itself – it's the design sensibility of such decidely non-high tech elements as wood, copper, and paint. </div>
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A home of the year 2119 will almost certainly not include "smart" products made by Amazon or Apple (when was the last time you bought a Westinghouse appliance?). But there's a decent chance that it will include furniture inspired by mid-century modern aesthetics. Aesthetic modes can be surprisingly persistent, even as technologies change – in historian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longue_dur%C3%A9e">Fernand Braudel's terms</a>, design styles are often multi-generational "conjunctures" spanning several decades or even centuries. These can easily outlast the more rapidly-passing "history of events."</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-F5oTiX_waRc/XfP_eqzM06I/AAAAAAAAEJ0/eNrxpXCtqzwNw504W4gtp7eqPmhw-c6lACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Arsen_5104_f14_detail2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="446" data-original-width="287" height="640" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-F5oTiX_waRc/XfP_eqzM06I/AAAAAAAAEJ0/eNrxpXCtqzwNw504W4gtp7eqPmhw-c6lACLcBGAsYHQ/s640/Arsen_5104_f14_detail2.jpg" width="412" /></a></div>
A favorite example: The <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/medieval-europeans-pointy-shoes">"Crakow" or "Poulaine" style of shoe</a> – you might not know the name, but you probably know the look. It's the curly-toed, long-pointed footwear that you might recognize from medieval manuscripts or from historical films, Renaissance fairs, and the like.</div>
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There's no technological rationale for these absurdly long shoes: they are simply a fashion choice. But it proved to be a fashion that was amazingly persistent, originating in the twelfth century and not falling out of style until the childhood of Henry VIII (that's over 300 years). </div>
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Or take the design of radios and televisions throughout the first six decades of the twentieth century. </div>
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Cutting-edge products of modern technology, yes. But a form of technology that gets disguised in carved wooden cabinets that look straight out of the nineteenth century. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>A 1951 magazine advertisement for a Zenith "Black Magic" television.</i></td></tr>
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Perhaps the most prescient twentieth-century vision of a smart home isn't from a commercial or promotional video promising specific technologies. It's from Stanley Kubrick's <i>2001: A Space Odyssey, </i>when the astronaut David Bowman finds himself in a sort of alien-designed observation room, where he lives out the rest of his life.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2XG_ba8xiGQ/XfP2XSaNY4I/AAAAAAAAEJQ/IA7mAc5ZW082w38uoVSevere9zNyfiQcACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/09tmag-25rooms-slide-ASWZ-superJumbo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="740" data-original-width="1600" height="296" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2XG_ba8xiGQ/XfP2XSaNY4I/AAAAAAAAEJQ/IA7mAc5ZW082w38uoVSevere9zNyfiQcACLcBGAsYHQ/s640/09tmag-25rooms-slide-ASWZ-superJumbo.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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As Michael Benson writes in his excellent recent book about the making of <i>2001</i>, Kubrick and Arthur C. Clark's vision of the final space in the film was "supposed to have overtones of a holding tank or zoo cage." They tried out various space-age design elements for this "hyperreal hotel room," but in the end they settled on something oddly traditional: Louis XVI furniture, muted paint tones, and decorative objects that look like something Queen Victoria might nod approvingly at. </div>
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It's safe to say that Kubrick's alien hotel room is not a good guide to what the homes of the future will actually look like. But I think that Kubrick intuitively grasped something that his space-age peers did not: technology changes far more quickly than aesthetics does. </div>
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We might not have fussy Victorian-style furniture or Danish modernist tables in space, but then again – maybe we will. </div>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-6093364368084340382019-10-30T13:10:00.001-06:002019-10-30T13:40:31.529-06:00Enlightenment-era Ghosts and the History of Technology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>A detail of one of Etienne Gaspard Robertson's "phantasmagoria."</i></td></tr>
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Ghosts were in the air in eighteenth-century London. Few knew this better than James Boswell, the friend and biographer of Samuel Johnson. On a gloomy Saturday in March of 1762, feeling “cold and spiritless” and having “lost all relish of London,” Boswell sought out the company of some friends. Unfortunately for Boswell, after dinner had ended, the group began to “talk of death, of theft, robbery, murder, and ghosts.”<br />
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Boswell's diary <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C6dd3DSM2FYC&lpg=PP1&dq=boswell%20london%20journal&hl=pt-PT&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank">continues</a>:<br />
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<span style="color: #444444;">Lady Betty and Lady Anne declared seriously that at Allanbank they were disturbed two nights by something walking and groaning in the room, which they afterwards learned was haunted. This was very strong. My mind was now filled with a real horror instead of an imaginary one. I shuddered with apprehension. I was frightened to go home. </span></blockquote>
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Luckily, Boswell had a good friend in his companion Erskine, who “made me go home with him, and kindly gave him half of his bed, in which, though a very little one, we passed the silent watches in tranquility.” (Later, Boswell admitted that his lifelong fear of ghosts had made it impossible for him to sleep alone until he was eighteen.)<br />
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Perhaps ghosts had become a topic of conversation for Boswell's friends that evening due to the infamous case of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cock_Lane_ghost" target="_blank">Cock Lane ghost</a>. One of the most celebrated news stories of 1762, the Cock Lane affair had all the usual trappings of newspaper drama, including illicit sex, a controversial expert commission (which included Samuel Johnson), and spectacular allegations of murder – supposedly made by the ghost of the victim herself, one Fanny Lynes. All throughout the dreary winter and early spring of 1762, crowds of Londoners gathered outside the scene of the crime, regularly attempting to make contact with the spirit of the victim.<br />
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That same year, a play called <i>The Orators</i> had been staged in London which <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C3lwQXAKok4C&dq=%22What%20is%20a%20ghost%3F%22&hl=pt-PT&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank">featured</a> an incompetent attorney defending a client who happened to be a ghost. “What is a ghost? A spirit,” the grandstanding lawyer declaims:<br />
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<span style="color: #444444;">What is a spirit? A Spirit is a thing that exists indepentently of, and is superior to, flesh and blood. And can any man go for to think, that I can advise my client to submit to be tried by people of an inferior rank to herself?... I therefore, humbly move to squash this indictment, unless a jury of ghosts be first had. </span></blockquote>
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The works of Shakespeare, especially his ghost-haunted plays <i>Hamlet</i> and <i>Macbeth</i>, began to enjoy a new level of renown in the same period, inspiring an entire sub-genre of spectral paintings and prints.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Detail from Benjamin Wilson's </i>William Powell as Hamlet Encountering the Ghost <i>(circa 1768).</i></td></tr>
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In her book <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1849766460/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1849766460&linkId=1543e6f55bcced77067a15b46acffe5d" target="_blank">The Ghost: A Cultural History</a></i>, Susan Owens argues (rightly, I think) that ghosts are “mirrors” of the cultures they haunt: “They reflect our preoccupations, moving with the tide of cultural trends and matching the mood of each age.” But I would go a bit further than this: ghost sightings seem to me to reflect, most of all, the <i>technological </i>preoccupations of an age. Thus it's little surprise that Enlightenment-era debates about ghosts fixated on whether the use of experimental tools, allied with reason, could banish these pesky supernatural entities altogether.<br />
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For the Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume, ghosts and apparitions helped inspire what is perhaps the most famous passage in Hume's <i>Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding</i>: <a href="https://davidhume.org/texts/e/10" target="_blank">Section X, “Of Miracles.</a>” By Hume's definition (“a transgression of a law of nature” enacted by "the Diety, or by the interposition of some invisible agent”) ghosts and haunting fell under the heading of “miracles,” just as the resurrection of Christ did. Hume was having none of it: the laws of nature are products of “a firm and unalterable experience,” he argued, that can only be changed by the testimony of many people from different times and places – a variation on the practices of collective observation and “virtual witnesses” that <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CttwDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA108&dq=%22public%20witnessing%22%20%22scientific%20revolution%22&hl=pt-PT&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q=virtual%20witnesses&f=false" target="_blank">historians of science identify</a> as one of the key aspects of the Scientific Revolution. According to Hume, ghosts and other miracles fail this test, because they are single, unique events. It is more sensible, he argued, to attribute claims of miracles to unreliable observers (motivated, for instance, by the desire to promote religious beliefs) than to assume a true violation of the laws of nature.<br />
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Given this, it's tempting to tie eighteenth-century ghosts to a larger narrative about what Keith Thomas called the “<a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140137440/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0140137440&linkId=65ebf58afdae2a7a625973d0da20f642" target="_blank">decline of magic</a>” during the Enlightenment era. The witchcraft trials which had convulsed Europe in the seventeenth century began to peter out in the early decades of the eighteenth. Although <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Wenham_(alleged_witch)" target="_blank">Jane Wenham</a>, an alleged witch who was condemned to death by a jury in 1712, was not the very last witch to be executed in England (as sometimes claimed), her case was deeply emblematic. In response to witnessing Jane's trial, a clergyman named Francis Hutchinson wrote an impassioned, skeptical essay on witchcraft that debunked many of the famous persecutions of the past few decades, including the Salem trials. Perhaps the decline in popular belief in the existence of <i>living</i>, <i>human</i> wielders of supernatural powers displaced that belief in the supernatural into <i>non-living </i>magical entities: ghosts, spirits, apparitions, and the like.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Je87cwbs7yU/XbDvH7HzHAI/AAAAAAAAEHM/U6cv8GD0aA0GkeBqAYkTWUhDoGgp-2LmwCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/possibilityreali00boul_0005.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="770" data-original-width="900" height="552" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Je87cwbs7yU/XbDvH7HzHAI/AAAAAAAAEHM/U6cv8GD0aA0GkeBqAYkTWUhDoGgp-2LmwCLcBGAsYHQ/s640/possibilityreali00boul_0005.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Francis Hutchinson's </i>Historical Essay Concerning Witchcraft<i> (London, 1718) and Richard Boulton's attempt to "vindicate" the concept of magic in response (London, 1722). Boulton's book is discussed below.</i></td></tr>
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Eighteenth-century ghosts were not quite the same as the ones familiar from present-day horror literature and films. They were not even the same as the ghosts of the Victorian era, which haunted seances with their disembodied rappings and knockings. The difference shows how technological change maps onto the ways that people think about magic. Victorian seances were inspired by what was, at the time, cutting-edge research into such things as X-rays, radio waves, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_theories" target="_blank">aether</a>. The spirits of the dead appeared in these late nineteenth-century accounts as something akin to telegraph operators, sending out long-distance communications by means of cryptic, coded communication. As Hilary Grimes <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4e-qCwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA16&ots=w2j-2dr70_&dq=victorian%20seance%20ghost%20morse%20code&hl=pt-PT&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q=victorian%20seance%20ghost%20morse%20code&f=false" target="_blank">points out</a> in her book <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1138261378/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1138261378&linkId=c0f6799df472d7a392cc6bc2e335e7f6" target="_blank">The Late Victorian Gothic</a>, </i>spiritualist seances mapped directly onto the technological changes of the nineteenth century. Early in the Victorian period, ghosts regularly communicated in Morse code; when the telephone was invented, however, disembodied voices began to be picked up from the aether. <br />
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In the earlier context of Enlightenment-era Europe, natural philosophers were intensely concerned with the question of how the limits of perception and reason could be experimentally determined. This was not just a philosophical debate, but one that related to specific technological changes. Devices like the microscope and telescope, though invented in the seventeenth century, emerged as widely-available consumer items in the early decades of the eighteenth. The promise these new tools offered of being able to see what had previously been invisible prompted new questions about what <i>else</i> might be revealed by future technological advances, lurking beneath the surface of ordinary human perception.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-lMv8JvI69Sk/XbDL-wbghdI/AAAAAAAAEGI/HR5_gnvHPSsaj8h-de8kTGUNyHISe1k6gCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/The_Gin_shop_-_Cruikshank%252C_Scraps_and_sketches_%25281829%2529%252C_f.9_-_BL.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1070" data-original-width="1444" height="474" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-lMv8JvI69Sk/XbDL-wbghdI/AAAAAAAAEGI/HR5_gnvHPSsaj8h-de8kTGUNyHISe1k6gCLcBGAsYHQ/s640/The_Gin_shop_-_Cruikshank%252C_Scraps_and_sketches_%25281829%2529%252C_f.9_-_BL.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>George Cruikshank's "The Gin Shop," 1829. Notice the dancing ghosts in the "Spirit Vault" behind the bar. Admittedly, this is an early nineteenth-century image, but the link between distilled spirits and ghosts was older.</i></td></tr>
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In the same period, another esoteric technology of seventeenth-century alchemists and natural philosophers became truly accessible to common folk: distilled spirits. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin_Craze" target="_blank">gin craze</a> of 1720s and 1730s London is the most famous manifestation of this trend, but the vogue for drinking all manner of distilled spirits never really went away. (Here I can't avoid making a plug for my forthcoming book, <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0812251784/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0812251784&linkId=74150f9fe7529f5ec9258ac9d4ff8656" target="_blank">The Age of Intoxication: Origins of the Global Drug Trade</a></i>, which charts how eighteenth century Europe and its colonies became suffused with new forms of intoxication). The revelation of the power of this more prosaic form of “spirits” shaped how eighteenth century thinkers imagined the spirits within human beings. Robert Pitt, in his 1705 attack on “the Frauds and Villanies” of apothecaries, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EnZbAAAAQAAJ&hl=pt-PT&pg=PA200#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank">argued</a> that distilled alcoholic spirits “evaporate" the spirits within the human body itself, creating a sort of feedback loop whereby “the Spirits and Blood are made more Spiritual, til the Senses are decay'd.”<br />
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In a 1722 book, written in response to Hutchinson's, which purported to “demonstrate" the “<a href="https://archive.org/details/possibilityreali00boul" target="_blank">reality of magick, sorcery, and witchcraft</a>,” Richard Boulton wrote that "human... Spirits” could be “altered, and preternaturally indisposed” by “evil Spirits.” This was a prosaic claim. But Boulton framed his beliefs in the worldview of an Enlightenment-era natural philosopher, arguing that the existence of evil spirits could be deduced from the principles of a Cartesian universe in which "new Forms, which were in Motion" continually bounced up against one another. This constantly-changing world of violent motion, invisible to the naked eye but experimentally detectable by means of tools like the microscope, was a domain in which not only physical bodies, but “Impressions of the Mind” could also make themselves felt: Boulton claims that this is evident due to the fact that “Grief and Sorrow” are well-known causes of the death and decay of the human body. “If the Body be afflicted,” he explained, “the Soul suffers, and the Spirits are depressed, and consequently the whole languishes and decays.” And if, following scripture, we take it as a given that “all spiritual Bodies are immaterial substances,” then Boulton believed this provided a space of possibility for immaterial “spirits” to impact the physical universe – including, yes, ghosts.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LlsNBKFNSv0/XbDRLdGB3tI/AAAAAAAAEGs/e5FyH88exUcX7UNqnFKELaa0rOrT4l70QCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/robertson%2B1797.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="868" data-original-width="1600" height="346" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LlsNBKFNSv0/XbDRLdGB3tI/AAAAAAAAEGs/e5FyH88exUcX7UNqnFKELaa0rOrT4l70QCLcBGAsYHQ/s640/robertson%2B1797.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>An engraving of one of Robertson's "phantasmagoria" performed in 1797, from Etienne Gaspard Robertson, </i>Mémoires récréatifs, scientifiques et anecdotiques du physicien-aéronaute E. G. Robertson<i> (Paris, 1831).</i></td></tr>
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By the final decades of the eighteenth century, the concept of ghosts with a form that could manifest in the material world was falling into decline. Ghosts didn't go away, of course: as always, they simply adapted to new technologies. Susan Owens documents how ghosts gradually became transparent in this period due to the influence of a new breed of stage shows which relied on the use of magic lanterns to project images of spirits. Performers like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gaspard_Robert" target="_blank">Etienne Gaspard Robertson </a>began advertising their ability to summon “apparitions of Spectres, Phantoms and Ghosts” on demand by using vaguely-described new techniques (Robertson wrote, perplexingly, of “experiments with the new fluid known by the name of Galvanism”). Given the enormous popularity of magic lanterns in the decades bookending 1800, one suspects that Robertson's audiences knew perfectly well that he was not, in fact, a practitioner of the dark arts. Instead, he was something closer to what would come to be known as a stage magician, a performer whose audiences were aware that what they were watching was a clever trick, not real magic.<br />
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Ultimately, the newly-transparent ghosts of the Romantic era dwindled further still, disappearing entirely from view to become the “telegraph ghosts” of the Victorian seance. Unlike Victorian children, these ghosts were to be heard, but not seen.<br />
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As for today? “<a href="https://twitter.com/search?q=%22haunted%20image%22&src=typed_query" target="_blank">Cursed images</a>” haunt social media, and ad hoc collections of ghost stories like <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/nosleep/" target="_blank">r/nosleep</a> proliferate featuring a new breed of digital ghosts. From the corporeal ghost of the Enlightenment, to the transparent ones of the Romantic era, to the etheric specters of the Victorians, we have reached something that, once again, holds a mirror to our own technological preoccupations: the ghost in the networked machine.<br />
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<b>Further reading:</b><br />
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• Allison Meier, <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/robertsons-fantastic-phantasmagoria" target="_blank">"Robertson’s Fantastic Phantasmagoria, An 18th Century Spectacle of Horror,"</a> <i>Atlas Obscura</i> (2013)<br />
• Fabio Camilletti, <a href="https://www.historyextra.com/period/stuart/phantasmagoria-creating-the-ghosts-of-the-enlightenment/" target="_blank">"Phantasmagoria: creating the ‘ghosts’ of the Enlightenment,"</a> <i>BBC History Extra </i>(2017)<br />
• Mary Luckhurst and Emile Morin, eds. <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1137345063/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1137345063&linkId=8958ead58096085ba1985a113272aa11" target="_blank">Theatre and Ghosts: Materiality, Performance, and Modernity</a> </i>(Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).<br />
• Susan Owens, <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1849766460/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1849766460&linkId=1543e6f55bcced77067a15b46acffe5d" target="_blank">The Ghost: A Cultural History</a> </i>(Tate Publishing, 2017).<br />
• Hilary Grimes, <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1138261378/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1138261378&linkId=c0f6799df472d7a392cc6bc2e335e7f6" target="_blank">The Late Victorian Gothic: Mental Science, the Uncanny, and Scenes of Writing</a> </i>(Routledge, 2016).<br />
• <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140436502/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0140436502&linkId=502ca7b15d0b1786eeac7c234278392b" target="_blank">James Boswell's <i>London Journal</i></a>.<br />
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-49470914524738240372019-03-28T18:49:00.000-06:002019-03-30T13:21:17.041-06:00The Most Wonderful Map in the World: Urbano Monte's Planisphere of 1587<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uYu3_wEt-Xo/XJ_BmxnV8DI/AAAAAAAAD8o/fvulO8Bc-zkQyg-FjJkF97lgIqHozYzIACLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bglobe%2Bnew.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1600" height="640" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uYu3_wEt-Xo/XJ_BmxnV8DI/AAAAAAAAD8o/fvulO8Bc-zkQyg-FjJkF97lgIqHozYzIACLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bglobe%2Bnew.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
At some point in 1589, a Milanese cartographer named Urbano Monte made up his mind: his self-portrait needed updating.<br />
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Monte carefully crouched over the section of his map that bore his self-portrait from two years earlier — close-cropped sandy hair, a trim beard, modest clothes — and pasted a new self-portrait over it. The resulting double self-portrait (Monte at 43, hidden beneath a new portrait of Monte at 45) testifies to the persistence of male pattern baldness throughout human history.<br />
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It also exemplifies Monte's astonishing attention to detail. The task he had set himself was to map every corner of the known world, not only showing cities, rivers and mountains, but giving warnings about monsters (beware the trickster spirits that lurk in Central Asian deserts) and wondrous beasts like unicorns.<br />
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If the two years that divide Monte's self-portraits seem to have led to some lost hair and added wrinkles, we can hardly blame him. Because in that time, Urbano Monte had been hard at work creating what, for my money, is the most fascinating and wonderful map ever made.<br />
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Perhaps the most striking thing about the map is the elaborate organizational schema of the 60 sheets that comprise it. Monte intended for each of these sheets to be assembled into a vast, 9-foot-square circular world map that had a markedly different projection than the more famous style that had been adopted by Mercator some two decades earlier. As an <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/rumsey3/Monte/Urbano+Monte+Catalog.pdf" target="_blank">excellent recent essay</a> about the map explains, Monte used an innovative "polar azimuthal projection; that is, a portrayal of the globe as radiating from a central North Pole, with the degrees of latitude shown at equidistant intervals."<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-CEL-eme5wgs/XJ1Y4L3qbqI/AAAAAAAAD6I/18U0-SbDRxYz3OoeOb6iMXwtkn9rzNfewCLcBGAs/s1600/10130083.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="753" height="640" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-CEL-eme5wgs/XJ1Y4L3qbqI/AAAAAAAAD6I/18U0-SbDRxYz3OoeOb6iMXwtkn9rzNfewCLcBGAs/s640/10130083.jpg" width="626" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A<i> composite image of 42 sections of Monte's map "stitched" together, as originally intended. The center of the map is the North Pole.</i></td></tr>
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And here it is in a more familiar projection:<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kfRwauPDm0Y/XJ1nTjkxiUI/AAAAAAAAD7w/jrddRNOsjsAeXc_sHujT0J4SESH4BqTowCLcBGAs/s1600/Screenshot%2B2019-03-28%2B17.07.13.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="833" data-original-width="1600" height="332" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kfRwauPDm0Y/XJ1nTjkxiUI/AAAAAAAAD7w/jrddRNOsjsAeXc_sHujT0J4SESH4BqTowCLcBGAs/s640/Screenshot%2B2019-03-28%2B17.07.13.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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Monte's map is quite impressive as a work of continental-scale cartography. He gets a lot of things right, relative to his sixteenth-century peers: California is not an island. Africa is fairly accurately delineated, and Europe and the Mediterranean are quite accurate. But that's not what makes the map unique. It's the fact that the enormous scale of Monte's vision gave him space to crowd his map not only with a tremendous amount of local cartographic detail, but with tiny illustrated figures (of demons, monsters, unicorns, and more), mini-maps of major cities, and highly eclectic captions.<br />
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ikBgSmPgF9Y/XJ1eQSyRebI/AAAAAAAAD6c/TtIaEHZKapcIVWyKV3a1PeBxm4R80ZRlQCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bmonte%2B3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1542" height="640" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ikBgSmPgF9Y/XJ1eQSyRebI/AAAAAAAAD6c/TtIaEHZKapcIVWyKV3a1PeBxm4R80ZRlQCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bmonte%2B3.jpg" width="616" /></a></div>
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Above all, Monte's was an ocean-oriented map. Ships of all description can be found criss-crossing his oceans. King Philip II of Spain himself — who, in his rule as Duke of Milan, was Monte's liege lord — makes an appearance on a ship of state off the coast of Brazil. He is offered a wreath by a mermaid ("here you are, magnanimous and sovereign King," reads a caption). King Philip holds a sphere of the world, mimicking the circular shape of the map itself. And at his side appears Atahualpa, the Inca Emperor, who offers a container of gold and a sphere labelled "Peru." In an accompanying caption, Atahualpa says, "When subject to me and to Satan, the New World was unhappy. Now that it is your's, it is more happy."<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Z31p34XjiZM/XJ1eupDI5PI/AAAAAAAAD6o/gPSZ4cgsiy4R8D16OFdeUuEvjoOtIR5PwCLcBGAs/s1600/english%2Bship.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1049" data-original-width="1102" height="612" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Z31p34XjiZM/XJ1eupDI5PI/AAAAAAAAD6o/gPSZ4cgsiy4R8D16OFdeUuEvjoOtIR5PwCLcBGAs/s640/english%2Bship.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>An English ship off the coast of South America. Sir Francis Drake raided several Spanish colonial cities in the Americas during 1585-6, the years when Monte was beginning work on his map. Given Drake's fame at the time, it's not inconceivable that Monte was thinking of him. </i></td></tr>
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However, my favorite details in the map are not at sea, but on land. Monte seems to have been fascinated with animal life, both real and mythical. In his map of West Africa, for instance, he makes sure to include animals like the <i>pantera </i>(panther) and <i>vipera </i>(viper.)<br />
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As well as this somewhat dismayed looking camel:<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-K5wTInAVAfA/XJ1gs3ruFMI/AAAAAAAAD68/vsVhrAvBNgsZdFAObdMLbzjlwILaI5OiwCLcBGAs/s1600/camel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1276" height="601" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-K5wTInAVAfA/XJ1gs3ruFMI/AAAAAAAAD68/vsVhrAvBNgsZdFAObdMLbzjlwILaI5OiwCLcBGAs/s640/camel.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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The most wonderful details of all, in my opinion, can be found in the section of the map dealing with northern Asia. Some of the details are fairly predictable, like the many tents and wagons indicating that many of the inhabitants of the region have a nomadic way of life.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-oifTuLISw-U/XJ1i24UdQbI/AAAAAAAAD7I/f-tSzwKn3n45SXViwZIO0Iqmya2gn_b2wCLcBGAs/s1600/tartars.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="940" data-original-width="1600" height="376" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-oifTuLISw-U/XJ1i24UdQbI/AAAAAAAAD7I/f-tSzwKn3n45SXViwZIO0Iqmya2gn_b2wCLcBGAs/s640/tartars.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wagons and tents of "Tartars... who have no [fixed] habitation."</td></tr>
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But others are incredibly odd, like the Mongolian unicorn frolicking next to a caption that appears to be claiming that the ten Lost Tribes of Israel live nearby ("dove sono diece Tribu d'Israel").<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ob_4nmafZ1s/XJ1kjPr2RnI/AAAAAAAAD7U/Thtq_CrjvdIfDVpigUiAl44N3jArgMWUACLcBGAs/s1600/unicorn.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1014" data-original-width="1387" height="466" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ob_4nmafZ1s/XJ1kjPr2RnI/AAAAAAAAD7U/Thtq_CrjvdIfDVpigUiAl44N3jArgMWUACLcBGAs/s640/unicorn.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Nearby, in Manchuria, lurks the fearsome manticore, which a caption tells us "is an animal with the face of a lady, the body of a lion, and the tail of a scorpion."<br />
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-piqfLYIg6dQ/XJ1laQjHToI/AAAAAAAAD7c/cOn6eAMXQ7cVmcElKF5eDWVtGMKMuRQgACLcBGAs/s1600/manticore.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1150" data-original-width="1475" height="498" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-piqfLYIg6dQ/XJ1laQjHToI/AAAAAAAAD7c/cOn6eAMXQ7cVmcElKF5eDWVtGMKMuRQgACLcBGAs/s640/manticore.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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My favorite details of all, however, are the demons that lurk in the empty zones east of Persia and Turkestan. "In this desert there are spirits who deceive," states the caption next to the city of Lop in my (admittedly poor) attempted translation from the Italian. It seems to me like Monte was digesting Persian stories about the djinn and <i><a href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/div" target="_blank">div</a> </i>who were reputed to trick desert travelers.<br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-S37IwdYBwCA/XJ1l4n34b6I/AAAAAAAAD7k/Gyly3WnaXI0WYmsjEDXIKEJXQRllBPuNACLcBGAs/s1600/lop.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1175" data-original-width="1301" height="578" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-S37IwdYBwCA/XJ1l4n34b6I/AAAAAAAAD7k/Gyly3WnaXI0WYmsjEDXIKEJXQRllBPuNACLcBGAs/s640/lop.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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To round things out, here's a final aspect of the map I found fascinating: Monte's trading card-like portraits of what he evidently regarded as the eight leading monarchs of the earth. The list is interesting for who it leaves out. There's no Queen Elizabeth here, and no Emperor Akbar of India. In order, the list of monarchs features:<br />
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>"The Emperor of Turkey," <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_III" target="_blank">Murad III</a>.</li>
<li>"The King of Spain and of the Indies," <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" target="_blank">Philip II</a>. </li>
<li>"The chief of Christians, the Pontifex Maximus," Pope Sixtus V.</li>
<li>"The great Prester John, King of Great Ethiopia," mythical but perhaps in reference to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarsa_Dengel" target="_blank">Sarsa Dengel</a>.</li>
<li>"The King of Poland," presumably <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_B%C3%A1thory" target="_blank">Stephen Báthory</a>, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania.</li>
<li>"The King of Portugal," as it happens, this was <i>also </i>Philip II of Spain during the 1580s! (For an explanation, begin <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_succession_crisis_of_1580" target="_blank">here</a>).</li>
<li>"<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moctezuma_II" target="_blank">Matezuma</a> who was King of Mexico and the Western Indies" - a fascinating detail.</li>
<li>"[Holy] Roman Emperor," <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" target="_blank">Rudolph II</a>. Who was Philip II's nephew. Among other things, this map really demonstrates the degree to which the Spanish state dominated the world in the 1580s.</li>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-IYWYVD0a2SE/XJ1nwGyR9CI/AAAAAAAAD74/46sMkWrOjGI-S9Zg71pHT1orrjMhcwhqgCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bmonte%2B1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1008" height="940" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-IYWYVD0a2SE/XJ1nwGyR9CI/AAAAAAAAD74/46sMkWrOjGI-S9Zg71pHT1orrjMhcwhqgCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bmonte%2B1.jpg" width="612" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9B4E4j55mvM/XJ1n5og2XaI/AAAAAAAAD78/YGM9qtpS79IF08oCnkNrfepiBxvcGbIxwCLcBGAs/s1600/Pages%252Bfrom%252BUrbano%252BMonte%252BCatalog-8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1019" height="940" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9B4E4j55mvM/XJ1n5og2XaI/AAAAAAAAD78/YGM9qtpS79IF08oCnkNrfepiBxvcGbIxwCLcBGAs/s640/Pages%252Bfrom%252BUrbano%252BMonte%252BCatalog-8.jpg" width="612" /></a></div>
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Personally, I think that this is the most visually compelling, detailed, and just plain interesting map I've ever seen. And I can't believe I had never heard of it until today. Thanks to the <a href="https://www.davidrumsey.com/" target="_blank">David Rumsey Map Collection</a> for buying and making freely available one of only two known copies of the map, and thanks also to <a href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/history/faculty/jc5543" target="_blank">Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra</a> for publicizing it via Facebook, which is how I came across these scans.<br />
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If you find any of this interesting, the best thing to do is to jump right into the map itself. You can find an overview from the map's owner and digitizer, the David Rumsey Map Collection, <a href="https://www.davidrumsey.com/blog/2017/11/26/largest-early-world-map-monte-s-10-ft-planisphere-of-1587" target="_blank">here</a>.<br />
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Best of all, every section of the map is available to download in ultra high resolution <a href="https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/view/search?q=pub_list_no=%2210130.000%22&sort=pub_list_no,series_no&os=0" target="_blank">here</a>. There's even an interactive version of the map available to explore via Google Earth.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-GA9Bzx9qCdY/XJ1xlFnaJ2I/AAAAAAAAD8M/xwDqDNXxWQUnGb8wY9uY054p_hSy9ouOgCLcBGAs/s1600/Pages%252Bfrom%252BUrbano%252BMonte%252BCatalog-7%252B-%252BCopy-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1237" data-original-width="1600" height="494" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-GA9Bzx9qCdY/XJ1xlFnaJ2I/AAAAAAAAD8M/xwDqDNXxWQUnGb8wY9uY054p_hSy9ouOgCLcBGAs/s640/Pages%252Bfrom%252BUrbano%252BMonte%252BCatalog-7%252B-%252BCopy-2.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></span><span style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;">March 30 edit: Jeremy Ashkenas has made his own zoomable version of the globe map <a href="https://observablehq.com/@jashkenas/urbano-montes-planisphere-1587" target="_blank">here</a> - it takes some time to load but is well worth a look. </span></div>
Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-71709302861002806662018-10-26T16:38:00.002-05:002018-10-27T22:49:00.294-05:00Seven Weeks to Venice: History Through Isochronic Maps<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NodRSeRXxn0/W4TrsgNSJBI/AAAAAAAADwg/zwZfoRW51N8QDNHAZyrH9jC-0Ecr0tpLQCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bmap%2Bheader.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1600" height="640" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NodRSeRXxn0/W4TrsgNSJBI/AAAAAAAADwg/zwZfoRW51N8QDNHAZyrH9jC-0Ecr0tpLQCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bmap%2Bheader.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;">Detail of a 1921 map that visualizes its own accuracy: red regions are accurately mapped, orange less so, etc.</span></i></td></tr>
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Historians love maps, but we don't always use them to their full potential. I'm as guilty of this as anyone; for my own book, I'm probably going to keep things cartographically simple, like most other academic historians. A few straightforward, black-and-white maps with labels for the key places mentioned in the book. Nothing innovative; just a practicality to help the reader.<br />
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Sometimes, however, historians manage to do something truly interesting with maps.<br />
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My favorite example has long been a series of maps by the French historian Fernand Braudel, featured in his first book <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520203089/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520203089&linkCode=as2&tag=ro067-20&linkId=79f9cf2d51d288e3bee76f0c6e30e04e" target="_blank">The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II</a></i>. The history of the book itself is pretty fascinating in its own right: remarkably, Braudel managed to write much of it while he was in a Nazi prisoner of war camp in Lübeck, Germany, between 1942 and 1945.<br />
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Three of Braudel's maps from the book, which I've stitched together into a single GIF, brilliantly depict the time it took for a letter to reach Venice if it had been sent from a number of different cities: Moscow, Lisbon, Istanbul, and more.<br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-6Qy6szNztgk/W4Tt0XR1ZRI/AAAAAAAADws/-P-z-eO8-KM7B_R76HHdGZ6u2O3SKQGZQCLcBGAs/s1600/ezgif-2-5e8256a490.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="580" data-original-width="800" height="466" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-6Qy6szNztgk/W4Tt0XR1ZRI/AAAAAAAADws/-P-z-eO8-KM7B_R76HHdGZ6u2O3SKQGZQCLcBGAs/s640/ezgif-2-5e8256a490.gif" width="640" /></a></div>
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Each line in the map depicts a week. So, for instance, in 1500 a letter sent from Antwerp to Venice would've taken three weeks to arrive; one from Lisbon would've taken around seven. An amazing amount of work went into these simple images: for each city in each time, Braudel was drawing on letters he'd found in his archival research. (If you want to study these maps more carefully, they've been digitized <a href="https://pages.uoregon.edu/dluebke/301ModernEurope/Space-Time%2016thC.html" target="_blank">here</a>.)<br />
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I didn't know the name for this type of map until recently. It turns out that they're called isochrone or isochronic maps. An isochrone is, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochrone_map" target="_blank">according to Wikipedia</a>, "a line drawn on a map connecting points at which something occurs or arrives at the same time."<br />
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They're not just brilliantly concise ways of conveying information - in my opinion, isochrone maps can also be incredibly beautiful. Sometimes they seem on the verge of becoming abstract art, like this 1882 map of the communication times between Paris and the rest of France:<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-yC0KqPPlHqQ/W4TmbEGk8mI/AAAAAAAADv4/WdBakdyX0YUU5xiuQwkF9bhnz1LzHjKIwCLcBGAs/s1600/france%2Bisochronic%2Bmap%2Bres%2Bobscura.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1044" data-original-width="1600" height="418" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-yC0KqPPlHqQ/W4TmbEGk8mI/AAAAAAAADv4/WdBakdyX0YUU5xiuQwkF9bhnz1LzHjKIwCLcBGAs/s640/france%2Bisochronic%2Bmap%2Bres%2Bobscura.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>E. Martin, "Carte des communications rapides entre Paris et le reste de la France," 1882, <a href="https://luna.lib.uchicago.edu/luna/servlet/detail/UCHICAGO~2~2~348~1231802:Carte-des-communications-rapides-en?qvq=q:_luna_media_exif_filename%3DG5831-P3-1882-M3.tif&mi=0&trs=1#" target="_blank">via the University of Chicago Map Collection</a>.</i></td></tr>
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Or this map of Melbourne train times:<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/--3qCcxgOBy0/W4TrIHvQybI/AAAAAAAADwY/kLRn5Q2kRcgwL8q1EetBOPrunSLQxqjfQCEwYBhgL/s1600/melbourne%2Bmap.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1079" data-original-width="1600" height="430" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/--3qCcxgOBy0/W4TrIHvQybI/AAAAAAAADwY/kLRn5Q2kRcgwL8q1EetBOPrunSLQxqjfQCEwYBhgL/s640/melbourne%2Bmap.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>“Minimum Railway or Tramway Time Zones,” 1910-1922,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochrone_map#/media/File:Map_of_Melbourne_and_environs_minimum_railway_or_tramway_time_zones.jpg" target="_blank"> via the State Library of Victoria</a>. </i></td></tr>
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<span style="text-align: left;">There's something </span><i style="text-align: left;">biological</i><span style="text-align: left;"> about these maps, which sometimes look more like cell cultures in a Petri dish than the stuff of atlases: it's as if they reveal the unthinking, unplanned, semi-random aggregate behaviors of huge numbers of humans. There's also something distinctively modern about such maps. They rely on large amounts of information, which needs to be at least somewhat accurate, and hence it wasn't really possible to make them until fairly recently. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-p6AnkwHMyvA/W4TpYjS4agI/AAAAAAAADwE/CoHbDX5xQOoKuex4fV330fTJw0QfNxbUwCLcBGAs/s1600/Francis%2BGalton%2BMug%2BShot%2Bwhen%2BVisiting%2BAlphonse%2BBertillon%2Bin%2B1893.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="885" data-original-width="1418" height="400" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-p6AnkwHMyvA/W4TpYjS4agI/AAAAAAAADwE/CoHbDX5xQOoKuex4fV330fTJw0QfNxbUwCLcBGAs/s640/Francis%2BGalton%2BMug%2BShot%2Bwhen%2BVisiting%2BAlphonse%2BBertillon%2Bin%2B1893.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Francis Galton in 1893.</i></td></tr>
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The creator of the first isochronic map appears to have been Francis Galton. He was Charles Darwin's cousin and colleague (<a href="http://galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm" target="_blank">here are some letters</a> they sent to one another), and one of the founders of the concept of what came to be called "social Darwinism." His legacy is mixed, to put it mildly. Galton's advocacy for scientific racism and eugenics would, after his death, indirectly inspire Hitler. But he was also a pioneer in the field of data visualization: he invented the idea of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_portrait" target="_blank">composite <span style="color: #0000ee;"><span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 238);"><u>portraiture</u></span></span></a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/apr/25/modern-weather-map-newspaper-weatherwatch" target="_blank">created</a> some of the first systematic weather charts.</div>
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In 1881, Galton also published one of the first isochronic maps. </div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JXFUrMjaKGs/W4Twn07B_TI/AAAAAAAADw4/OkmpuocAfQg_drY3f5HJ33ViZOcx0sN5wCLcBGAs/s1600/Res%2BObscura%2B1881%2BGalton%2Bmap.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="749" data-original-width="1145" height="418" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JXFUrMjaKGs/W4Twn07B_TI/AAAAAAAADw4/OkmpuocAfQg_drY3f5HJ33ViZOcx0sN5wCLcBGAs/s640/Res%2BObscura%2B1881%2BGalton%2Bmap.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Francis Galton, "Isochronic Passage Chart for Travellers," London, 1881.</i></td></tr>
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The map was color-coded to show the expected travel time from London to anywhere on earth. Green areas could be reached in less than ten days, yellow in ten to twenty, pink in twenty to thirty, and so on. It was clearly a rough approximation, and I doubt that it was useful to many people on a practical level. But as a new way of thinking about data visualization, it was a breakthrough. </div>
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One product of doing historical research is that you end up with vast amounts of metadata. That's what Braudel so shrewdly capitalized on with his Venetian letters map: anyone who works in historical archives for long will end up leafing aimlessly though stacks of letters sent by bureaucrats. Usually, when we do this, we're scanning for a specific bit of information or thematic element. </div>
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But we also happen to be accessing all sorts of additional data in the process: when and where was the letter written, when it was received? Who read it, and what did they underline? Or even, how damaged is paper? What color is the ink? The answers to all of these questions, taken in aggregate, have the potential to tell us something new. </div>
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Isochronic maps relating to travel times for humans and letters have been particularly popular with historians, because it's so easy to find archival documentation relating to the setting-off and arrival points of both. </div>
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Here are two examples from the early United States, made by Allan Pred:</div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DEgekPv7fBk/W4TzLl3tAyI/AAAAAAAADxQ/hDoRSFVroV8ZEw7okuI4bYm4XTb5xV5VgCLcBGAs/s1600/resobscuramap3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="557" data-original-width="981" height="364" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DEgekPv7fBk/W4TzLl3tAyI/AAAAAAAADxQ/hDoRSFVroV8ZEw7okuI4bYm4XTb5xV5VgCLcBGAs/s640/resobscuramap3.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://twitter.com/DrLeonJ/status/1034295016208777216" target="_blank">Thanks to Leon Jackson</a> for sharing these with me.</i></td></tr>
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And here's an attempt to update another isochronic map of global travel times, from the 1920s, with the estimated times in 2016:</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-PadTAuebASU/W4TywLCVNoI/AAAAAAAADxE/FDJ9K7jhfkgKNslZDy_292kzX1QiM4fGwCLcBGAs/s1600/Res%2BObscura%2Bmap%2B7%2Breddit%2Buser%2Brtr_%2Bupdated%2B1914%2Bisochronic%2Bmap%2Bfor%2B2016.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1000" data-original-width="716" height="640" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-PadTAuebASU/W4TywLCVNoI/AAAAAAAADxE/FDJ9K7jhfkgKNslZDy_292kzX1QiM4fGwCLcBGAs/s640/Res%2BObscura%2Bmap%2B7%2Breddit%2Buser%2Brtr_%2Bupdated%2B1914%2Bisochronic%2Bmap%2Bfor%2B2016.jpg" width="484" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Via Reddit user r2r_, <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/dataisbeautiful/comments/3ztqqr/a_2016_version_of_the_1914_isochronic_londonworld/" target="_blank">originally posted</a> in r/dataisbeautiful.</i></td></tr>
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Another interesting example of the technique comes from a vintage map I own, a detail from which began this post. It depicts the state of English geographic knowledge of the earth in 1921, with high cartographic accuracy labelled in darker reds and lower accuracy shading into orange and yellow. Entirely unknown areas are in white; most of them seem to be in the Arctic Circle and the Sahara.</div>
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-QGE0s7C9WAg/W4T10QXQWII/AAAAAAAADxg/2tlZOxEnbG40mO45rCknu2cucqMk9549wCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2B9%2Bmap.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="950" data-original-width="1600" height="384" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-QGE0s7C9WAg/W4T10QXQWII/AAAAAAAADxg/2tlZOxEnbG40mO45rCknu2cucqMk9549wCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2B9%2Bmap.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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I'm curious whether other forms of information that historians come across in archives could also be visualized in this way. One example that comes to mind from my own research in the history of drugs is an isochronic map of travel times for <a href="https://resobscura.blogspot.com/2012/12/early-modern-drugs-and-medicinal.html" target="_blank">important drugs</a>: i.e., how long did it take for opium to travel from India to China in 1800? What about tea? Sugar? It would conceivably be possible to create such a thing using records relating to taxation and purchasing at different points. </div>
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Or, perhaps isochrones could be based on prices for drugs or other commodities: where are the boundaries between the prices of silver, say, or tobacco, at different time periods, and how do these differences flatten out as globalization accelerates? If you have any ideas for other interesting approaches to mapping history, please let me know in the comments. </div>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-46178237784633929232018-08-23T17:01:00.005-05:002021-05-16T22:40:11.472-05:00Opium or Cucumber? Debunking a Myth About Sumerian Drugs<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-LsVERelL-fk/W0zqqiuILVI/AAAAAAAADrg/08IM_HaGkJo6YtN9BnwhlBb8fcL-Nq-7ACLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bopium%2Bsumerian.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="998" data-original-width="998" height="640" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-LsVERelL-fk/W0zqqiuILVI/AAAAAAAADrg/08IM_HaGkJo6YtN9BnwhlBb8fcL-Nq-7ACLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bopium%2Bsumerian.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>"Protective spirit" from Nimrud, c. 850 BCE, British Museum, London.</i></td></tr>
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If you turn to an early page in one of the dozens of books about the history of opium, there's a decent chance that you will run into the claim that opium use goes back to ancient Sumer. Specifically, the argument goes, the Sumerians called opium <i>hul gil</i>, meaning "joy plant," and memorialized their use of the drug in sculptures like the one above, which supposedly shows a deity holding poppy pods.<br />
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This blog post is about how everything in the above statement is wrong.<br />
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Why do I care about what is, admittedly, kind of a trivial detail? Two reasons. The first is that the history of opiates strikes me as a highly underrated topic. Despite the recent popular interest in opiate addiction and opiate production in the US media, the deeper history<i> </i>of opiate use and addiction rarely gets mentioned in major public forums. Based on my anecdotal experiences talking to members of the public (and teaching a history of drugs class at UCSC), there's a lot of interest in the topic, but very little popular knowledge about it<span face=""arial" , sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: 16px;">—</span>no Ken Burns documentaries, no best-selling books, no education in secondary schools. So when we <i>do </i>talk about the history of opium and other drugs, we should try to get it right.<br />
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A second reason for why the "hul gil myth" matters is that it's a great example of how historical misinformation spreads even long after it has been proven wrong. The origin of the myth actually turns out to be a now-forgotten book from the 1920s, which was then debunked in the 1970s. But somehow that almost century-old error continues to have a life of its own.<br />
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Here are some examples of the hul gil myth in action, from two recent, well-respected academic books both published by Oxford University Press:<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-frCbPEbDWAg/W3priHEJ8ZI/AAAAAAAADtk/DkiDyjq1cPEdqKnC4qGB_qaOp7ThRD_PACLcBGAs/s1600/plants%2Band%2Bthe%2Bhuman%2Bbrain%2Bdavid%2Bkennedy.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="1301" height="196" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-frCbPEbDWAg/W3priHEJ8ZI/AAAAAAAADtk/DkiDyjq1cPEdqKnC4qGB_qaOp7ThRD_PACLcBGAs/s640/plants%2Band%2Bthe%2Bhuman%2Bbrain%2Bdavid%2Bkennedy.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">David O. Kennedy, <i>Plants and the Human Brain</i> (Oxford University Press, 2014), pg. 6.</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Pz8scuyxFfk/W3nvLXoCieI/AAAAAAAADtY/kCq57QegU2sNjPlw5Uknl1fOmTZp26jXACLcBGAs/s1600/Virgina%2BBerridge%2BDemons.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="602" data-original-width="1297" height="198" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Pz8scuyxFfk/W3nvLXoCieI/AAAAAAAADtY/kCq57QegU2sNjPlw5Uknl1fOmTZp26jXACLcBGAs/s640/Virgina%2BBerridge%2BDemons.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Virginia Berridge, <i>Demons: Our Changing Attitudes to Alcohol, Tobacco, and Drugs</i> (Oxford University Press, 2013), pg. 9.</td></tr>
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The list goes on. If you search "hul gil opium" on Google Books, you'll end up with <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=%22hul-gil%22+opium&client=safari&rls=en&tbm=bks&tbas=0&source=lnt&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip1-jxjITdAhUDCnwKHV0NDaMQpwUIIQ&biw=1220&bih=737&dpr=2">over a thousand hits</a>. In a <a href="https://michaelpollan.com/articles-archive/opium-made-easy/" target="_blank">classic 1997 <i>Harpers </i>article </a>about his attempts to grow opium poppies, Michael Pollan notes that his interest in the topic was piqued by "read[ing] about what the ancient Sumerians had called 'the flower of joy.'" Hul Gil shows up <a href="https://www.deamuseum.org/ccp/opium/history.html">on an official DEA website</a> which claims the drug dates back to 3400 BCE, and in a <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/heroin/etc/history.html">PBS Frontline documentary</a> about opium. Someone at the River's Edge Brewing Company even decided to name a <a href="https://untappd.com/b/river-s-edge-brewing-company-hul-gil/2678393">golden ale</a> after it. And, naturally, hul gil has made its way into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium#Ancient_use_(pre-500_CE)" target="_blank">Wikipedia</a>. Although the core information (Sumerians, "joy plant," etc) remains the same in these accounts, the dates given range widely. As it happens, if there really were references to opium in 4000 or 3400 BCE, they would not only be the oldest references to a <i>drug </i>in history. They'd be the oldest <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_language">decipherable</a> written texts of any kind.<br />
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Abraham Krikorian, a biology professor, was the first to map the tangled web of assumptions and misunderstandings that gave rise to the Hul Gil myth. His paper <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4330626?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents" target="_blank">"Were the Opium Poppy and Opium Known in the Ancient Near East?"</a> (1975) traced the origin of the claim that Sumerians used opium back to a British colonial official and physician named A. R. Neligan, who had served as physician to the United Kingdom's legate in Tehran and who <a href="https://archive.org/details/b28071645">published a 1914 book of "hints"</a> for travelers to the region. <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-lVC2CA-QpOQ/W3ykFcvG2JI/AAAAAAAADuU/I-7iWMf_NwEND-YF9aHU6-HFa7eNZewWgCLcBGAs/s1600/Screenshot%2B2018-08-21%2B16.37.34.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="850" data-original-width="1600" height="338" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-lVC2CA-QpOQ/W3ykFcvG2JI/AAAAAAAADuU/I-7iWMf_NwEND-YF9aHU6-HFa7eNZewWgCLcBGAs/s640/Screenshot%2B2018-08-21%2B16.37.34.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px;">Title page and frontispiece illustration of a book by Reginald Campbell Thompson (1876-1941), accidental founder of the Sumerian opium myth.</td></tr>
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Neligan's book <i>The Opium Question </i>(1927) erroneously reported that the Sumerian state dated back to "five or six thousand years before the birth of Christ" and speculated that Persian opium use was based on an older Sumerian precedent. Neligan appears to have based this on conversations he had with a Cambridge archaeologist named Reginald Campbell Thompson, who had translated a series of Assyrian medical texts in the early 1920s and authored the wonderfully-titled book <i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CWUlAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Devils+and+Evil+Spirit+of+Babylonia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjoYm_pf_cAhWCG3wKHcGDCigQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q&f=false">Devils and Evil Spirit of Babylonia</a></i>. Thompson thought he'd found references to opium use in a set of Assyrian medical tablets that had belonged to an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Ashurbanipal">ancient library in Nineveh</a>, and shared the information with Neligan.<br />
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The tablets in question were from the 7th century BCE<span face=""arial" , sans-serif" style="color: #222222;"><span style="background-color: white; caret-color: rgb(34, 34, 34);">, </span></span>some 2,000 years after the Sumerians. Thompson thought he'd discovered a word in them ("HUL-GIL") which was Sumerian in origin, and thus much older than the Assyrian civilization which had created the texts themselves. But the connection between this term and opium was based on the flimsiest of guesses.<br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small; text-align: left;"><i>A fragment of a film that was apparently made at Thompson's dig in Ninevah in the 1920s or 30s.</i></span></div>
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Raymond Dougherty, a colleague of Thompson's who led the Babylon Collection at Yale and assisted in translating the tablets in question, explained their reasoning. <i>HUL</i>, Dougherty wrote, was thought to mean "joy" or "rejoicing," while <i>GIL</i> "as a single ideogram represented a number of plants." Beyond this, things got ambiguous. "It may be suggested in a very tentative way," continued Dougherty, "that the Sumerians in their system of pictographic writing endeavouerd to depict the power of opium to produce a sense of delight."<br />
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However, the only evidence we really have for this is the prior assumption that Sumerian "joy plant" simply <i>must</i> mean opium because... well, there really is no "because" here. It's a shot-in-the-dark guess that snuck into the scholarly record via a 1920s conversation between an archaeologist and a colonial physician. This theory was then "very tentative[ly]" entertained as a possibility by another scholar, and has been repeated as truth ever since.<br />
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Once the idea was established, it made it easy for sleuths to spot supposed iconographic references to opium poppies in Near Eastern art. Two examples are the following:<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zLbWQCyK5gw/W38rPwvDTEI/AAAAAAAADvE/weZDdyNn-88zz8qLS8b15fdAYt8GeUXzgCLcBGAs/s1600/12239677_10153351916539385_6307721478093316134_n.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="493" data-original-width="820" height="386" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zLbWQCyK5gw/W38rPwvDTEI/AAAAAAAADvE/weZDdyNn-88zz8qLS8b15fdAYt8GeUXzgCLcBGAs/s640/12239677_10153351916539385_6307721478093316134_n.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">LEFT: Relief from the palace of Sargon II, 8th century BC. RIGHT: Detail from first image in this post.</td></tr>
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The image at left is from a restatement of the hul gil myth that has been shared nearly 500 times on <a href="https://www.facebook.com/robertsepehr/photos/a.10151064074184385/10153351916539385/?type=1&theater" target="_blank">Facebook</a>. At right is a photo I took of an Assyrian bas relief when I was at the British Museum last month. Both images have been theorized to depict opium pods.<br />
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But if we take into account that the textual evidence for Ancient Near Eastern opium is non-existent, it seems much more likely to me that they're simply holding pomegranates, which we already know had a <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324328" target="_blank">significant symbolic role</a> in Mesopotamia and which show up elsewhere in Assyrian art of the same period<span face=""arial" , sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: 16px;">—</span>and which happen to look almost exactly like the "poppy pods" that scholars have identified in other ancient artworks. <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-UWgNb7DjPUg/W38sDE_8u4I/AAAAAAAADvM/VHdOVUtGtUUwYNWQPZjpzWrkdHuC_AuLgCLcBGAs/s1600/DP110584.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="548" data-original-width="599" height="586" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-UWgNb7DjPUg/W38sDE_8u4I/AAAAAAAADvM/VHdOVUtGtUUwYNWQPZjpzWrkdHuC_AuLgCLcBGAs/s640/DP110584.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A Neo-Assyrian ivory pomegranate from 9th century Nimrud, <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324328" target="_blank">via</a> the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NYC.</td></tr>
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In the end, it seems that this early generation of scholars was completely wrong about the hul gil ideogram. We can't really blame them. After all, Dougherty and Thompson were working in a language which was still being deciphered, and were tasked with translating a set of technical and uncommon botanical terms. It turns out that the cuneiform that had been interpreted as "HUL-GIL" in the 1920s could also be interpreted as "UKUS-RIM." As best Krikorian could figure out<span face=""arial" , sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: 16px;">—</span>and he seems to have gone <i>really </i>deep when it comes to reading the relevant cuneiform scholarship, so I believe him on this<span face=""arial" , sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: 16px;">—</span>the ideogram in question actually means something like "cucumber-like plant" or perhaps the unrelated plant known as bitter cucumber (<i>Citrullus colocynthis</i>). <br />
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Thompson himself was aware of the confusion later in his career, but explained it by saying that the Sumerians used the term UKUS-RIM for both plants "because of the similarity of the poppy capsule to the small cucumber."<br />
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Honestly, I'm not seeing it.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-DpwpaKOA9Zs/W3yRRYcSzhI/AAAAAAAADt4/USdUsajGF_kT-6jq0aQrr1yGJEgre6wBwCLcBGAs/s1600/2419.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="799" data-original-width="1500" height="344" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-DpwpaKOA9Zs/W3yRRYcSzhI/AAAAAAAADt4/USdUsajGF_kT-6jq0aQrr1yGJEgre6wBwCLcBGAs/s640/2419.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">(Admittedly, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrullus_colocynthis">Citrullus colocynthis</a></i> looks a little bit more like a poppy pod, but still, the comparison seems like a stretch to me.)</td></tr>
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These new findings debunking the older theory didn't spread widely enough. Some mentions of Sumerian opium use do hedge their bets somewhat (for instance, Antonio Escohotado, in his widely-read <i>General History of Drugs</i>, repeats the claim but <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qeIt-1dwCKUC&lpg=PP1&dq=general%20history%20of%20drugs&pg=PA93#v=onepage&q&f=false">adds</a> "there is also argument against this.") The thing is, it's not an argument or a debate. As far as I can tell, it's a settled fact.<br />
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I realize I'm getting into the scholarly weeds here. But I think it's important to pay attention to how myths about drugs originate and circulate. Drugs are not just a topic for niche scholarship. They're a major social force: our assumptions about drugs and drug history can reshape social policy, which in turn can directly impact the course of people's lives. And it seems to me that drug history is particularly susceptible to misinformation because the field has been neglected for so long by academic historians, and because there's so much distrust about official narratives relating to drugs.<br />
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As is often the case in history, it turns out that the truth is actually more interesting than the fiction here. Based on the best guesses of contemporary archaeologists, opium actually turns out to be a drug native to <i>western Europe</i>. Opium poppy (<i>Papaver somniferum</i>) residue has been <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hefUAAAAQBAJ&lpg=PA358&dq=opium%20in%20bronze%20age%20europe&pg=PA356#v=onepage&q&f=false">conclusively identified</a> in analyses of early Bronze Age European agricultural sites in the Alps, and there's some reason to think that <i>Papaver somniferum </i>is native to this region. Although it's possible that the poppies were processed for their oil rather than their psychoactive latex, their presence in ritual burials (<a href="http://institucional.us.es/revistas/spal/15/art_2.pdf">notably in a Bronze Age cave in Spain</a>) point to the use of opium as a drug. Certainly by the time of the Greeks of the 5th century BCE, who widely interpreted Helen's use of a sadness-reducing substance called <i>nepenthe </i>in the Odyssey as a reference to opium, the drug had become widespread in the Mediterranean.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-DAyl-eNajWA/W38m-poQQxI/AAAAAAAADuw/0ABpSi6i9Us98HkL8cqIeqlyZBO4bEXBwCLcBGAs/s1600/Tomb-of-Sennedjem..png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="244" data-original-width="934" height="166" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-DAyl-eNajWA/W38m-poQQxI/AAAAAAAADuw/0ABpSi6i9Us98HkL8cqIeqlyZBO4bEXBwCLcBGAs/s640/Tomb-of-Sennedjem..png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A wall painting showing poppies, mandrakes, and cornflowers in the tomb of Sennedhem, Deir el-Medina. <a href="https://www.atthemummiesball.com/poppies-ancient-egypt/" target="_blank">Via</a>.</td></tr>
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The question of whether the Egyptians used opium in earlier centuries is still open. There's some <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.846.221&rep=rep1&type=pdf">iconographic evidence of poppy pods</a> in Egyptian art, but we need to be careful about distinguishing between the opium poppy (<i>Papaver somniferum</i>) and its non-psychoactive cousins like the corn poppy (<i>P. rhoeas)</i>, the seeds of which <a href="https://www.atthemummiesball.com/poppies-ancient-egypt/">were found </a>in a Middle Dynasty Egyptian tomb. Although it has been claimed that a set of jars traded by Cypriot merchants in the 14th century Eastern Mediterranean contained opium, this was <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/opium-or-oil-late-bronze-age-cypriot-base-ring-juglets-and-international-trade-revisited/763FD09E93CC6ADB344A1C9ABE5FA50E/core-reader">recently disproven using chemical analysis of the residue</a>.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1PWrlkOOOb8/W38nIqphJsI/AAAAAAAADu0/bfeydRqGUYIIXCCCFy9AV7WdxcHGlzITACLcBGAs/s1600/Gold-earrings-of-Queen-Tausret..jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="467" data-original-width="637" height="468" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1PWrlkOOOb8/W38nIqphJsI/AAAAAAAADu0/bfeydRqGUYIIXCCCFy9AV7WdxcHGlzITACLcBGAs/s640/Gold-earrings-of-Queen-Tausret..jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gold earrings of Queen Tausret, circa 1190 BCE, possibly made in imitation of poppy pods. <a href="https://www.atthemummiesball.com/poppies-ancient-egypt/" target="_blank">Via</a>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
In short, we're left with a story that's very different from what the public seems to think. Opium is actually a <i>native</i> <i>European drug</i>. It didn't reach Egypt, Persia or Mesopamia until the the classical period, some three to four thousand years later than the Hul Gil proponents claim. Opium use never disappeared in Europe (medieval and early modern drug manuals commonly mention the drug). But over the centuries, opium became associated with "the East" and disassociated from its European origins.<br />
<br />
With the opiate crisis constantly in the news, it's important to remember just how much we don't<i> </i>know about the history of drugs, and how much misinformation circulates. By assuming that opium is an Eastern product which was only relatively recently imported into Europe, we add to a centuries-old tendency to turn the scary drug of the moment into a hostile, foreign invader.<br />
<br />
The same thing played out with cannabis (which, like opium, was not hard to find in early modern European herbals) when it was <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/07/14/201981025/the-mysterious-history-of-marijuana">rebranded as "marijuana"</a> in an intentional effort to make the drug sound foreign to audiences in the United States.<br />
<br />
Why exactly did drugs with ancient histories in European medicine, like cannabis and opium, become transformed into foreign invaders? It's a topic that I'll pick up in a future post, but if you're interested, I've also written about it in a chapter that recently appeared in a book from the University of Pennsylvania Press. The book is called <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0812249836/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0812249836&linkId=e1892b38f13676d1f598bfea88949e15" target="_blank">Entangled Empires</a></i>, and the chapter is called "Empires on Drugs." Here's a <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ESVJDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA63&dq=%22benjamin%20breen%22&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false">preview</a> courtesy of Google Books, and I'm happy to send the complete PDF of the chapter to anyone who might be interested. Just contact me via <a href="https://twitter.com/ResObscura" target="_blank">Twitter</a> or <a href="mailto:bebreen@ucsc.edu" target="_blank">email</a>.<br />
<br />
<b>Further reading:</b><br />
<br />
<br />
- <a href="https://www.atthemummiesball.com/poppies-ancient-egypt/">"Poppies in Ancient Egypt"</a> from At the Mummies Ball.<br />
- <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.846.221&rep=rep1&type=pdf">"Poppy and Opium in Ancient Times: Remedy or Narcotic?"</a> by Ana María Rosso.<br />
- <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4330626?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">"Were the Opium Poppy and Opium Known in the Ancient Near East?"</a> by Abraham D. Krikorian (paywalled, but I'm happy to email a PDF to anyone who's interested)<br />
<br /></div>
Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-47635011114019932002018-07-15T15:45:00.000-05:002018-07-16T10:50:42.279-05:00When California Was the Bear Republic<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-8dUo-dJtSYU/W0ugYza4IEI/AAAAAAAADpQ/uHEYGQ22bxc2eAoc3IQ8PrJ3q2SKTnNEgCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bcalifornia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1006" data-original-width="1006" height="640" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-8dUo-dJtSYU/W0ugYza4IEI/AAAAAAAADpQ/uHEYGQ22bxc2eAoc3IQ8PrJ3q2SKTnNEgCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bcalifornia.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>A 1650 map by French cartographer Nicholas Sanson showing California as an island.</i></td></tr>
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Last month, California voters paved the way for voting on an initiative that would split California into three states. I'm currently writing this at a coffee shop in Santa Cruz, California, where I live. If Proposition 9, the "Three States Initiative," were to be approved by California's voters this November, I would be writing from the southern frontier of the great state of <i>Northern</i> California.<br />
<br />
Although this blog is usually devoted to early modern history (roughly from the end of the Middle Ages, around 1450, to the French and Industrial Revolutions, around 1800), this post will be about a topic closer to home: the history of California partition and separatism efforts, and why that history matters.<br />
<br />
It turns out that the elected officials of California actually <i>did </i>vote to split it up, back in 1855 and 1859. But these efforts by a sparsely-populated territory of a nation slipping into what would become the Civil War understandably failed to generate political momentum on the federal level. This marked the final stage of a pseudo-rebellion that doesn't get as much attention as that of the Lone Star state. And for good reason: it officially lasted for less than a month. Led from his base in Sonoma by a Mormon farmer and miner named William B. Ide, the California Republic officially declared independence on June 14, 1846, and ended on July 9th of the same year.<br />
<br />
It wasn't much of a revolution. But the independence declaration, which was led by Anglo colonists and coordinated with United States military commanders, had served its purpose: the US invasion of California during the Mexican-American War (1846-48) began in earnest with Commodore John Sloat's occupation of Monterey on July 1st. Within a matter of weeks, the short-lived Republic had begun to segue into the beginnings of a provisional government for the newly-established US territory of California.<br />
<br />
The legacy of the republic lives on in one anachronistic respect: the California flag, with its famous bear and star and "California Republic" label. (And no, California was never supposed to be called the <i>Pear</i> Republic, despite what Snopes' unwise flirtation with <i>Onion-</i>style parody articles <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bearing-the-flag/">might've told you</a>).<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NA9WypLO_i4/W0uxbK5fyBI/AAAAAAAADqw/YNgitejEQSoDQfPkUMkGifYN1bJGbENvACLcBGAs/s1600/Screen%2BShot%2B2018-07-15%2Bat%2B1.40.40%2BPM.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1001" data-original-width="1600" height="400" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NA9WypLO_i4/W0uxbK5fyBI/AAAAAAAADqw/YNgitejEQSoDQfPkUMkGifYN1bJGbENvACLcBGAs/s640/Screen%2BShot%2B2018-07-15%2Bat%2B1.40.40%2BPM.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Detail from California's Proclamation of Independence with the earliest sketch of the Bear flag, June 14, 1846. </i></td></tr>
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The present-day version is somewhat altered from the early draft above, but maintains the general idea:<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-MeldMuKtlcE/W0uq4CJOLzI/AAAAAAAADqA/xA7NKCZXdesIsca0gqyRE--OlGlR8qulACLcBGAs/s1600/Flag-of-California.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1068" data-original-width="1600" height="426" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-MeldMuKtlcE/W0uq4CJOLzI/AAAAAAAADqA/xA7NKCZXdesIsca0gqyRE--OlGlR8qulACLcBGAs/s640/Flag-of-California.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>State flag of California flying above SF City Hall, via Wikimedia Commons.</i></td></tr>
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Why does this episode matter? It doesn't, really, on the level of political history. It's easy to declare a revolution, but very difficult to maintain one. The independent Republic of California barely lasted three weeks, if indeed it can be even <i>called </i>independent. But I think that there's still something important about the story of the "Bear Republic": it reminds us that nationalism is usually built on illusions, and that national identities are never static.<br />
<br />
One of the best books I've read on the origins of national identity, <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0300059434/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0300059434&linkId=4bdf0d185cecd516cde3608c08a612ae">The Fabrication of Louis XIV</a></i>, embeds this claim in its very title. Louis XIV existed as an historical personage, but his <i>national legend</i> had to be intentionally constructed, more or less out of thin air. So, too, with national identities in general. California is an excellent example: when some of my compatriots complain about Spanish-speakers who <a href="http://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-ln-speak-english-20180528-story.html">"need to speak English"</a> because "this is America," I feel a sense of historical whiplash. After all, over one third of the United States (including California) was once a <i>part of the Spanish empire</i>. I'm writing this from within a stone's throw of a Spanish mission that was founded in 1791. Even leaving aside the fact that the United States has no official language (under the express direction of the Founding Fathers, who were well aware of the symbolic significance of that decision), it is just an historical fact that Spanish-speaking communities long predate English-speaking ones in a vast swathe of the present-day United States.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-h0g1duX4hXg/W0unRiPHDYI/AAAAAAAADp0/N9ZHcRWTPLgm8IC5VMpPoSLc0FxBK82VQCLcBGAs/s1600/Garcia_Cubas_New_Spain.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1318" data-original-width="1600" height="526" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-h0g1duX4hXg/W0unRiPHDYI/AAAAAAAADp0/N9ZHcRWTPLgm8IC5VMpPoSLc0FxBK82VQCLcBGAs/s640/Garcia_Cubas_New_Spain.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Map of Las Californias (here marked as "Nueva" and "Vieja") at the beginning of the 19th century, from Antonio García Cubas' </i>Atlas Geográfico, Estadístico e Histórico de la República Mexicana<i> (1857)</i></td></tr>
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We tend to teach "American history" in schools by beginning with a hazy pre-Columbian past, then skipping right to the Thirteen Colonies and the Revolution. In the case of what is now California (as with the rest of the western and southwestern US), this is both flat out incorrect, from the perspective of historical accuracy. It's also just... boring. How much more interesting it is to reflect on the history of California as an entity that has actually passed through <i>several</i> different national governments with its name and regional identity at least somewhat intact: New Spain, Mexico, and now the United States. As you can see in the seventeenth-century "California Island" map that begins this post, the name and general territorial outlines of California are surprisingly old.<br />
<br />
And in fact, the Bear Flag Revolt wasn't even the first independence movement of the region. In 1836, a group of inhabitants of what was then known as "Alta California" (to differentiate it from Baja) declared independence from Mexico. They were led by a <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californio">Californio</a></i> named Juan Alvarado, who declared himself de facto governor of the new nation and who later served as the official governor of Las Californias from 1837 to 1842. The region was eventually readdmitted to Mexico two years later, but only after having obtained a vague allowance that California remained a "sovereign state." The Alvarado iteration of California proclaimed its flag to be a red star on a white field: here we see the emergence of the first element in what would become the Bear Flag that flies today.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Js-fqdgG3bI/W0urmhN1kLI/AAAAAAAADqQ/zwINmYzCz9Yo7o_vuzjY2Eg2eovC2ZizgCLcBGAs/s1600/Lone_Star_of_California.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="763" data-original-width="600" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Js-fqdgG3bI/W0urmhN1kLI/AAAAAAAADqQ/zwINmYzCz9Yo7o_vuzjY2Eg2eovC2ZizgCLcBGAs/s640/Lone_Star_of_California.jpeg" width="506" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>The last surviving "Lone Star of California" flag from the 1836 Alvarado rebellion, now housed at the Gene Autry Western Museum in LA. </i></td></tr>
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The Bear Republic is also an early episode in a surprisingly persistent trend in California politics: efforts either to secede or to split the state up. After all, the putative Bear Republic didn't actually map on to present-day California's political boundaries at all. In reality, the short-lived independent state of "California" is better thought of as a rebellion launched by Sonoma County, where the conspirators were based.<br />
<br />
Less than ten years later, in 1855, the California State Assembly actually managed to successfully pass a proposal to divide the state into three parts: the state of Colorado (all southern counties as far north as Monterey); the State of Shasta (all northern counties north of Sonoma) and California in the middle. However, the bill died in the US Senate. Four years later, another proposal was launched to split California into two parts, again named California (north of the 36th parallel) and Colorado (south). Again, it failed.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-hYqkoFxkQoE/W0u3lwSBKOI/AAAAAAAADq8/fSUkWm-jSLYyIXow1QF_ZXlRwraRlBhvwCLcBGAs/s1600/California%2B1855%2Bproposal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="944" data-original-width="795" height="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-hYqkoFxkQoE/W0u3lwSBKOI/AAAAAAAADq8/fSUkWm-jSLYyIXow1QF_ZXlRwraRlBhvwCLcBGAs/s320/California%2B1855%2Bproposal.jpg" width="269" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">My rough map of the 1855 three-state proposal.</td></tr>
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In the twentieth century, proposals seemed to shift more into the orbit of a related phenomenon: the long-running, Quixotic efforts to create an independent state joining parts of western Canada and the US Pacific Northwest (the Nation of Cascadia) or to join the more libertarian, rural parts of Northern California and Oregon (the State of Jefferson).<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Inq80j0onuY/W0uuE02bWtI/AAAAAAAADqk/edCsMSY1Tncrna_6N75QsFQ17obuHbLDwCLcBGAs/s1600/State-of-Jefferson-Pamphlet-FSDM2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="955" data-original-width="800" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Inq80j0onuY/W0uuE02bWtI/AAAAAAAADqk/edCsMSY1Tncrna_6N75QsFQ17obuHbLDwCLcBGAs/s640/State-of-Jefferson-Pamphlet-FSDM2.jpg" width="536" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px;"><i>Excerpt from a 1941 pamphlet advocating for the creation of the State of Jefferson, via the Oregon State Historical Society. </i></td></tr>
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Researching the more recent movements to divide California, I was somewhat surprised by how mainstream they have been. For instance, a 1992 proposal to split California into three states (North, Central and South) actually passed the California State Assembly (it died in the State Senate). More recently, voters in Tehama County <a href="https://ballotpedia.org/Tehama_County_51st_State_of_Jefferson_State_Split_Question,_Measure_A_(June_2014)">approved</a> separating from the State of California by a vote of 57 versus 43 percent, joining Yuba, Siskiyou, and Modoc Counties in a revived "State of Jefferson" bid.<br />
<br />
As for the idea itself, although highly unlikely to pass, I don't think it's as crazy as some seem to think. For one thing, it's happened before: West Virginia split from Virginia, the Washington Territory split from the Oregon Territory, etc. And, in case you couldn't already guess my politics from what I wrote above, as a left-leaning voter I think that most proposals to split California would be beneficial in terms of hastening along the demographic wave that some political forecasters expect to stifle GOP hopes in the future: it's difficult for me to imagine any three-way split of the state that wouldn't result in <i>at least</i> two blue or blue-ish states, likely centered on SF and LA.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-EiZcZVPkTRs/W0urTCGx2UI/AAAAAAAADqI/t06ODhwm3rY0Pkj4TwwYVH592MvJY6LrACLcBGAs/s1600/Screen%2BShot%2B2018-07-15%2Bat%2B1.14.37%2BPM.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="682" data-original-width="1600" height="272" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-EiZcZVPkTRs/W0urTCGx2UI/AAAAAAAADqI/t06ODhwm3rY0Pkj4TwwYVH592MvJY6LrACLcBGAs/s640/Screen%2BShot%2B2018-07-15%2Bat%2B1.14.37%2BPM.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Various 21st century proposals to divide California, via Wikipedia.</i></td></tr>
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On the other hand, as a former resident of Texas, I'm well aware of the rivalry between these two most powerful states in the union--not to mention the legendary Texan confidence when it comes to their states' pre-eminence in virtually any contest you care to name. Splitting up like a cell undergoing mitosis would presumably trigger that famous competitive instinct. And the thing is, Texans are very well positioned to compete in this game. When the Lone Star state entered the union, via the Joint Resolution for Annexing Texas to the United States, the legal agreement contained a provision that at <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/the-great-divide/">least in theory</a> allows Texas to divide into four more states, resulting in five total.<br />
<br />
Back when I was a PhD student at UT Austin, I TAed for a professor who, when teaching this in his US history survey, joked that Texans were so proud of the distinctive shape of their state that, if this clause were ever triggered, Texans would assemble a team of mapmakers to find a way to split the state into five miniature Texas-shaped pieces! I tried putting together a mockup but gave up - it turns out that it's really hard to split a state into tiny versions of itself, unless we happen to be talking about the <a href="http://mathtourist.blogspot.com/2007/08/rectangular-states-and-kinky-borders.html">square ones</a>. More than likely, a Texas split would look something like the regional map below:<br />
<br />
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ATM0UcewD1Y/WyINDci5YiI/AAAAAAAADn4/wwviwmOIZ6o2xstZaZ0RSeLOp4lPtNFjQCLcBGAs/s1600/texas23.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="360" data-original-width="395" height="585" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ATM0UcewD1Y/WyINDci5YiI/AAAAAAAADn4/wwviwmOIZ6o2xstZaZ0RSeLOp4lPtNFjQCLcBGAs/s640/texas23.png" width="640" /></a><br />
<br />
But that's a story for another day. In the meantime, adiós from Alta California. </div>
Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-28160682621761903092018-05-23T17:46:00.000-05:002018-06-13T04:06:07.364-05:00A Medieval Emperor's Natural Language Experiment<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-K_QNXLAuEmI/WwXVSPryBBI/AAAAAAAADlc/v8Iqho89IMwQyK_5uV9DI511ht4MwI2bACLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bemperor%2Bfrederick.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1425" data-original-width="1425" height="640" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-K_QNXLAuEmI/WwXVSPryBBI/AAAAAAAADlc/v8Iqho89IMwQyK_5uV9DI511ht4MwI2bACLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bemperor%2Bfrederick.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><b>Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II as depicted in the Shrine of Charlemagne, which he commissioned, c. 1215.</b></i></td></tr>
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The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1194-1250) was known as the <i>stupor mundi</i> ("the astonishment of the world") among his European contemporaries. But he did not cut an impressive physical figure, at least according to the Baghdad-born chronicler Sibt ibn al-Jawzi.<br />
<br />
"The Emperor was covered with red hair, bald, and myopic," al-Jawzi <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fj0hBQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=%22The%20Crusades%20Through%20Arab%20Eyes%22&pg=PT156#v=snippet&q=dirhams&f=false">recorded</a>. "Had he been a slave, he would not have fetched 200 <i>dirhams</i> at market."<br />
<br />
The quip didn't reflect any particular animus on the part of al-Jawzi. In fact, Emperor Frederick was well-regarded by many in the Muslim world. Dante, that most judgmental of all medieval writers, placed Frederick in the sixth level of his Inferno: the region reserved for heretics. The emperor was by all accounts deeply religiously heterodox, and was famous for feuding with the Pope and enlisting Muslim soldiers in his personal bodyguard.<br />
<br />
The same unorthodox manner that had repelled Dante seems to have endeared Frederick to his rival Al-Kamil, the Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt. A strikingly good-natured exchange took place during the two rulers' parlay over the fate of Jerusalem. Al-Kamil's muezzin, out of respect for the presence of a Christian king, had refrained from the morning call to prayer. Emperor Frederick supposedly rebuked him, saying: "I stayed overnight in Jerusalem in order to overhear the prayer call of the Muslims and their worthy God." Frederick's ability to maintain respectful relations with the Sultan resulted in a bloodless transfer of Jerusalem to the Emperor's rule, in stark contrast to previous crusades which had typically resulted in massive amounts of senseless violence.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QqI7MKjyrgM/WwXmITkIkmI/AAAAAAAADl4/56_P_vw9y2ww_B4pALktCPgzq2c-Y8wogCLcBGAs/s1600/Friedrich_II._mit_Sultan_al-Kamil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="848" data-original-width="1152" height="472" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QqI7MKjyrgM/WwXmITkIkmI/AAAAAAAADl4/56_P_vw9y2ww_B4pALktCPgzq2c-Y8wogCLcBGAs/s640/Friedrich_II._mit_Sultan_al-Kamil.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><b>Emperor Frederick II and Sultan Al-Kamil clasping hands at the gates of Jerusalem, from Giovanni Villani's Nuova Cronica, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 14th century. </b></i></td></tr>
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Frederick's most recent biographer, David Abulafia, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sgufggLomo8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Frederick+II:+A+Medieval+Emperor%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjYh_D_35zbAhXjFjQIHQ2JD5cQ6AEIKTAA#v=snippet&q=scientific&f=false">calls</a> Frederick a "scientific" emperor, noting his deep-seated interest in the natural world, his rejection of religious orthodoxy, and his support for astronomical research.<br />
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But a closer look into the Emperor's own "experiments" yields some surprises.<br />
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Frederick's interests are emblematic of the difference between medieval investigations of nature and those that we today associate with modern science. For one thing, they were insanely unethical by modern standards. <a href="https://archive.org/stream/187SalimbeneCronica11942Si219/187_Salimbene_Cronica_1_1942_si219#page/n511/mode/2up">According</a> to the Franciscan monk Salimbene (who we should take with a grain of salt - Abulafia <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sgufggLomo8C&lpg=PP1&dq=%22Frederick%20II%3A%20A%20Medieval%20Emperor%22&pg=PA252#v=snippet&q=salimbene&f=false">calls</a> him a "shameless gossip"), these experiments included dissections of two men who had been fed meals hours earlier, to see how vigorous exercise influenced digestion. Salimbene also mentions a dubious-sounding incident in which Frederick compelled a man known as "Nicholas the Fish" (who was <a href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/salimbene1.asp">said</a> to have been "condemned to an amphibious life" by his mother's curse!) to continually dive and fetch an underwater golden cup until he drowned.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-uN0P4dzw8UE/WwXxwL57ZXI/AAAAAAAADmE/fvqyO1EyZ3cH8SvC7suy3wl6WThAJpJoQCLcBGAs/s1600/6673a38d5c70a3d75d128353bb41af08.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="702" data-original-width="1295" height="346" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-uN0P4dzw8UE/WwXxwL57ZXI/AAAAAAAADmE/fvqyO1EyZ3cH8SvC7suy3wl6WThAJpJoQCLcBGAs/s640/6673a38d5c70a3d75d128353bb41af08.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><b>Children playing, from a 1338 Alexander Romance (Bodleian, Oxford, MS Bodley 264).</b></i></td></tr>
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According to Salimbene, Frederick was also perhaps the first figure in recorded history to conduct a language deprivation experiment.<br />
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What happens to infants who are deprived of all language? It's a question with profound implications, because it potentially sheds light on long-standing debates over the degree to which the human brain has a "language instinct," as Steven Pinker put it in his <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0061336467/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0061336467&linkId=90fca00e96ab9bdc52f9a495845ad2ed">book of the same name</a>. But it's an experiment so deeply cruel that it has only been <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_deprivation_experiments">entertained</a> as an option by a handful of medieval and early modern rulers (a category of human beings for whom harshness and violence were <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kFHJAwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA198&dq=kings%20should%20be%20violent%20medieval&pg=PA90#v=onepage&q=kingship&f=false">sometimes</a> lauded as a virtue).<br />
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Here's my attempt at translating from Salimbene's Latin, which you can read here in full <a href="https://archive.org/stream/187SalimbeneCronica11942Si219/187_Salimbene_Cronica_1_1942_si219#page/n511/mode/2up">here</a>:<br />
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>The second of [Frederick's] superstitions is that he wished to discover what sort of language and speech children developed, when growing up, if they were spoken to by no one. And so he ordered nurses to give milk to the infants, and for their breasts to be suckled, and for them to be bathed and cared for, but that they should be in no ways be played with or spoken to. The emperor wanted to know whether these infants would begin to speak the Hebrew language (which had been the first), or the Greek, Latin, or Arabic tongues, or whichever language had been spoken by the parents from which they were born. However, he labored in vain. Whether children or infants, they all perished. For it was not possible to live without the rejoicing and games and happy faces and blandishments of their caregivers and nurses. </i></blockquote>
This inhumane episode, if it was actually ever carried out, is oddly reminiscent of some of the work of mid-20th century behavioralists, like B. F. Skinner, and their critics, like Harry Harlow. Harlow's interest in what he called the "pit of despair" afflicting isolated infants (which the psychologist apparently originally wanted to refer to with the even more medieval-sounding phrase "dungeon of despair") led him to conduct a now-infamous series of experiments involving the total isolation of baby rhesus monkeys. <br />
<br />
Harlow found that even providing access to an inanimate "surrogate" mother (if the surrogate was soft to the touch) could provide what he called a "psychological base of operations" that increased survival rates and improved the baby's ability to cope with stressors. Monkeys with no such comfort quickly succumbed to profound psychological distress; some even died.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-SM6MuNNmdO4/WwXj_WDnuiI/AAAAAAAADls/6-jwtoqbS0QrDfU0BHWafJ0SNSMV3WmQgCLcBGAs/s1600/twomothers.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="454" data-original-width="680" height="426" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-SM6MuNNmdO4/WwXj_WDnuiI/AAAAAAAADls/6-jwtoqbS0QrDfU0BHWafJ0SNSMV3WmQgCLcBGAs/s640/twomothers.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>A <i>Life Magazine photograph of one of the unfortunate infant monkeys involved in Harlow's infamous monkey experiments, circa 1959.</i></b></td></tr>
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Without wading too much into psychological explanations, it may be worth pointing out at this juncture that Frederick II lost his own mother at the age of three. Medieval lives tended to be harsh, and perhaps his own experience of traumatic loss of a loving parent inspired Frederick's supposed dabbling in the dark side of behavioralist psychology.<br />
<br />
Or maybe Salimbene, the monk on whom so much of what we supposedly know of Frederick depends, was simply slandering the emperor. It's hard to know at this point. But the episode does serve as a good reminder that many ideas and practices we associate with "modern science" often have much older (and stranger) antecedents than we realize.<br />
<br />
Incidentally, the obsession with seeing Hebrew as the "natural language" of humankind would stick around for a very long time. As late as 1760, the author of <i>A New Complete English Dictionary</i> speculated that Hebrew was the "language which God taught Adam." However, he noted that "others hold for the Syriac, Childee, Ethiopian, or Armenian" as potential first languages.<br />
<br />
What I find most interesting, though, about Frederick's cruel experiment is not the speculation about some hypothetical "first" language, but the question of whether infants are somehow naturally able to speak the language of their parents, even without exposure to them.<br />
<br />
The idea seems to me tantalizingly similar to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarckism">theory of inheritance</a> popularized by Jean-Bapistque Lamarck centuries later, toward the end of the eighteenth century.<br />
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-42027653281147880192017-11-12T14:36:00.001-06:002020-06-12T00:01:23.247-05:00What Did 17th Century Food Taste Like?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Diego Velázquez, <i>Old Woman Frying Eggs</i>, c. 1618, National Gallery of Scotland.</b></td></tr>
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As the official portraitist for the Spanish monarchy at the height of its glory, Diego Velázquez painted queens, emperors, and gods. But one of his most famous paintings is a window into a much humbler world. A woman is frying eggs in hot oil, ready to scoop them out with a simple wooden spoon. Behind her, a servant boy carries a half-full jug of wine and a melon tied up in a loop of twine.<br />
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This painting is the type of thing historians love. A profoundly talented artist with a knack for realism, choosing the type of subject matter that is so normal that it rarely gets preserved (the same is true today—how many contemporary painters choose to depict taquerias or bagel shops?) Scholars suspect that Velazquez's own family members may have served as models in his early paintings. It's possible that the woman in this painting numbered among them, since she also appears in a religious painting he produced in the same year.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-YPB8Q2nCMWA/WgfbWhYG6XI/AAAAAAAADY0/n1NUeX-i3G81N6DVKpvGE5B39mD1YrbAgCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bfood%2B2%2Bvelazeuz%2Bchrist%2B.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="928" data-original-width="1600" height="370" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-YPB8Q2nCMWA/WgfbWhYG6XI/AAAAAAAADY0/n1NUeX-i3G81N6DVKpvGE5B39mD1YrbAgCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bfood%2B2%2Bvelazeuz%2Bchrist%2B.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Diego Velázquez, <i>Christ in the House of Martha and Mary,</i> 1618, National Gallery, UK.</b></td></tr>
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But this post is not about Velazquez. It's not even about art history. It's about food.<br />
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What can we learn about how people ate in the seventeenth century? And even if we can piece together historical recipes, can we ever really know what their food tasted like?<br />
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This might seem like a relatively unimportant question. For one thing, the senses of other people are always going to be, at some level, unknowable, because they are so deeply subjective. Not only can I not know what Velázquez's fried eggs tasted like three hundred years ago, I arguably can't know what my <i>neighbor's </i>taste like. And why does the question matter, anyway? A very clear case can be made for the importance of the history of <a href="https://resobscura.blogspot.com/search/label/Medicine">medicine and disease</a>, or the <a href="http://www.slate.com/articles/life/the_history_of_american_slavery/2015/06/animated_interactive_of_the_history_of_the_atlantic_slave_trade.html">histories of slavery</a>, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40929823?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">global commerce</a>, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0300208634/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0300208634&linkCode=as2&tag=ro067-20&linkId=5b4fc3edd304ee7d8f58ba0e4ee20956">warfare</a>, and <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0631236163/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0631236163&linkId=e3166b3030d6683e2cee4efd962e93a5">social change</a>.<br />
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By comparison, the taste of food doesn't seem to have the same stature. Fried eggs don't change the course of history.<br />
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But taste <i>does</i> change history.<br />
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One example, chosen at random: the Mexican chili peppers hiding in the bottom edges of both paintings.<br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-dq4N5ORvQW4/WgfgA-wz12I/AAAAAAAADZA/g8gONU7GDsAnHZIK-i1u8DDUyBu8cUM7wCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bfood%2B3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="432" data-original-width="1069" height="258" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-dq4N5ORvQW4/WgfgA-wz12I/AAAAAAAADZA/g8gONU7GDsAnHZIK-i1u8DDUyBu8cUM7wCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bfood%2B3.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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The pepper family (genus <i>Capsicum</i>) is native to the Americas, and it was still a relatively new arrival in the cuisines of Asia, Africa, and Europe when Velazquez was alive. As a non-elite person born in 1599, we can guess that his grandparents would not have been familiar with the taste of peppers and that his parents still thought of them as an exotic plant from across the seas. Even the name he, and we, apply to the plant was a foreign import: the word 'chili' is from Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs. So is 'avocado' (Nahuatl <i>ahuacatl</i>), 'tomato' (<i>tomatl)</i> and chocolate (<i>chocolatl</i>).<br />
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The taste for these foods was a significant factor in the series of global ecological movements between the Old and New Worlds that historians call the Columbian Exchange. Any time we eat kimchi, or kung pao chicken, or pasta with red sauce, we are eating foods that are direct results of the Columbian Exchange.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">
<b>Someone really needs to make a better map of the Columbian Exchange. This one, from a public-domain resource for teachers from UT Austin, is one of the best I could find, but it doesn't come close to capturing the full range of exchanges.</b></div>
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But we're also eating <i>modern </i>foods. That's not to say that there aren't older correlates to these dishes—there undoubtedly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimchi#History">are</a>. But food has changed since the early modern period. Globalization of food crops has transformed the flavors of regional cuisines. Meanwhile, factory farming has led to a homogenization of some of the varietals available to us, while also creating a huge variety of new strains and hybrids.<br />
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One example: I didn't realize until recently that broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, kale, cabbage, and collard greens are all technically the same species, <i>Brassica oleracea. </i>The substantial differences between these sub-species are all due to patient intervention by human farmers over millennia. Many of these changes are surprisingly recent. Early versions of cauliflower may have been mentioned by Pliny and medieval Muslim botanists, but as late as 1600, a French author was writing that <i>cauli-fiori</i> "as the Italians call it" was "still rather rare in France." Likewise, Brussels sprouts don't appear to have become widely cultivated until the Renaissance.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-EuyIqKvg2Dc/WgfrxkQzzNI/AAAAAAAADZc/cgfl4ThmurMdzP9CAY4ds1t-DxVjVS5ogCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bfood%2B4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="767" data-original-width="1600" height="306" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-EuyIqKvg2Dc/WgfrxkQzzNI/AAAAAAAADZc/cgfl4ThmurMdzP9CAY4ds1t-DxVjVS5ogCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bfood%2B4.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>A woman with <i>Brassica oleracea </i>in Pieter Aertsen, <i>Market Scene</i>, 1569.</b></td></tr>
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One example of the substantial changes produced by the artificial selection of premodern farmers actually made the <a href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2015-08-17/17th-century-watermelons-looked-vastly-different-what-we-eat-today">news</a> a couple years back. In 2015, there was a wave of reporting about early modern watermelons. The watermelon is native to Africa and has a substantial amount of range in terms of color and taste. Seventeenth-century still life paintings record a substantially different phase in the artificial selection of watermelons toward the bright red, seedless varietal familiar in Western grocery stores.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xJhItjJobng/WgftH63VYDI/AAAAAAAADZs/CpC8vhgkE2gFbN1Rz2BhNORw47kh_uFygCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bwatermelon.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="528" data-original-width="937" height="360" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xJhItjJobng/WgftH63VYDI/AAAAAAAADZs/CpC8vhgkE2gFbN1Rz2BhNORw47kh_uFygCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bwatermelon.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Giovanni Stanchi, <i>Watermelons and other fruits in a landscape</i>, c. 1645, Christie's.</b></td></tr>
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But focusing on unusual varietals and exotic imports can be misleading. Most people in the early modern world—not just in Europe, but everywhere—were illiterate farmers and pastoralists whose diet was hyper-minimalist by contemporary standards.<br />
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This is not to say that their food tasted bad, necessarily. But it was clearly very simple, and very starch-heavy. From China to Europe to sub-Saharan Africa, gruels and stews made out of staple grains or legumes were the daily fare. Italian farmers weren't eating eggplant parmesan or spaghetti with meatballs. They were typically eating either boiled beans or grains, day after day after day.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eWEDvgmxYQQ/Wgf3hjPdYSI/AAAAAAAADZ8/4aFenPhzVVQJ-mtruGom5uZTMfnX5FnwwCLcBGAs/s1600/Annibale_Carracci_The_Beaneater.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="690" data-original-width="834" height="528" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eWEDvgmxYQQ/Wgf3hjPdYSI/AAAAAAAADZ8/4aFenPhzVVQJ-mtruGom5uZTMfnX5FnwwCLcBGAs/s640/Annibale_Carracci_The_Beaneater.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><i>The Beaneater </i>by Annibale Carracci, 1580-90.</b></td></tr>
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The acute eyes of Bruegel the Elder captured one example of this universal food of the premodern peasantry. In Bruegel's <i>The Harvesters</i>, a team of peasants is taking a break for a mid-day meal which seems to consist entirely of bread and bowls of what I am guessing is a wheat-based gruel, something akin to Cream of Wheat. The jugs they're drinking out of probably contain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_beer">small beer.</a><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9AfU8Q-tIoE/WgftF5PO9TI/AAAAAAAADZw/4JqrlIa-KQI4sB9SEBYzFXiwzHsoqDYtwCEwYBhgL/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bfood%2B5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="953" data-original-width="1600" height="384" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9AfU8Q-tIoE/WgftF5PO9TI/AAAAAAAADZw/4JqrlIa-KQI4sB9SEBYzFXiwzHsoqDYtwCEwYBhgL/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bfood%2B5.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Pieter Bruegel the Elder, <i>The Harvesters </i>(detail), Antwerp, 1525-1530.</b></td></tr>
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But paintings like these can only get us so far. A more promising approach, perhaps, would be to go directly to the textual sources and take a close look at early modern recipes. I spend a lot of time recording 'receipts' (an archaic form of the word <i>recipe</i>, but also a broader one, since it included drug prescriptions). Several actually look pretty tasty (like eighteenth-century "<a href="https://rarecooking.com/2014/06/30/maccarony-cheese/">Maccarony cheese</a>"), and I hope to cook a few one day, taking a page from my friend Marissa Nicosia's reconstructions of early modern food at <i><a href="https://rarecooking.com/">Cooking the Archives</a></i>.<br />
<br />
But there are many others that I have no desire to make anytime soon. One example that stands out in my mind is this recipe for snail water from a circa <a href="http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0002/html/mscodex388.html">1700 English manuscript at Penn</a>.<br />
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<b>To make Snaill water, for a consumption, or anny weakness in old or young persons, and for the ricketts</b><br />
take a quart of snails, wash them twince in stronge-stale-beere and dry them well in a cloth, then bruse them shels and all, put to them 3 quarts of red cows-milk 4 ounces, red rose leaves, Rosemary, sweet-marjoram, Ivery, of each a good handfull, distill altogether and sweeten your water with surrop of violets, and sugar candy lickerish sorrop, put in 6 penny-worth of naturall-ballsom, drink a quarter of a pint of this every night and morning. </blockquote>
Snails, stale beer and ivory shavings certainly sounds like a challenging flavor combo to me, despite the addition of the fragrant herbs and sugar. But this is a medicine, not a food, and it wasn't intended to taste good. Another <a href="http://dla.library.upenn.edu/dla/medren/pageturn.html?id=MEDREN_9923627463503681&rotation=0&size=2&currentpage=52">early modern manuscript owned by Penn</a> (this one from 1655, and more inclined toward food recipes than drug recipes) contains a far more relatable dish:<br />
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<b>To fricasie a chicken or rabbitt.</b><br />
Take a chicking and scald it or Case it, and put it into a frying pan with halfe a pint of strong broth, a peace of buter with a little whole pepper and mace, and boyle them well upon the fire till yr Chickin be tender then make a [illegible: looks like 'leare' or 'leane of uiriayce'?] and minced peaches* and ye yolkes of 2 eggs and a little drawne butter then put it into the frying pan keeping yr pan with shaking over the fyre till it bee thick, then dish it up strewing thereon a little minced parsley. </blockquote>
<i>* 11/19/17 update: a reader named <a href="http://tikalon.com/blog/blog.php">Dev Gualtieri</a> wrote to offer the suggestion that this word might be 'parsley' instead of 'peaches.' I think 'parsley' is a reasonable reading of the word, but hesitate to change it from 'peaches' because you can see at the bottom of the recipe that the author writes 'parsley' very differently there. </i><i>I've added a <a href="http://dla.library.upenn.edu/dla/medren/pageturn.html?id=MEDREN_9923627463503681&rotation=0&size=2&currentpage=52">link</a> to the original manuscript page so the reader can judge.</i><br />
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Even this relatively simple recipe for pan-fried chicken has some surprises, however. One is the addition of mace, a fairly obscure spice that comes from the same plant as nutmeg (nutmeg's the actual seed, and mace is the covering). It's a highly potent spice that numbs the tastebuds and imparts a strong aroma to food. And it's combined here with stewed peaches and egg yolks—not a flavor combination that has survived into the cuisines of the modern era, so far as I know.<br />
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Guessing the true flavors of these ingredients—the taste of premodern chicken, or mace carried in a ship's hold from Indonesia to Europe, or butter that was churned by hand—is at some level impossible. Certainly, we can make some educated guesses. In the case of late medieval cooking, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jtgud2P-EGwC&lpg=PA100&ots=9ldHRojOQ8&dq=medieval%20cooking%20gilded&pg=PA99#v=onepage&q=medieval%20cooking%20gilded&f=false">one scholar</a> has looked at the transformations of recipes as they crossed cultural zones (such as the medieval Arabic sweet porridge called <i>ma'muniya</i>, which evolved into Anglo-Norman <i>maumenee</i>) and concluded that "as time went by, a dish tended to become sweeter, spicer, and more complicated." But so much has changed between the worlds of the past and the present when it comes to cultivars, modes of preparation and preservation, and, perhaps, an overall sense of what tastes good and bad. I often wonder what someone from the thirteenth or seventeenth century might make of a Snickers bar, for instance. I suspect they'd find it disgustingly cloying. But then again, maybe not.<br />
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Thinking about historical tastes reminds me of the French expression for words that seem to be analogous across two languages, but actually have totally different meanings: <i>faux amis</i>. (For instance, English-speakers in Spanish-speaking countries often say that they are <i>embarazada</i>—they intend to say they're 'embarrassed,' but they're actually saying they're 'pregnant.')<br />
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These early modern foods are culinary false friends. They <i>seem</i> like they'd be the same as our familiar correlates. But we can't be sure that they <i>tasted</i> the same.<br />
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Like so much in history, they're so close, yet just out of reach.<br />
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<b>Further reading online:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="http://recipes.hypotheses.org/">The Recipes Project</a><br />
<a href="https://rarecooking.com/">Cooking the Archives</a><br />
<a href="http://blogs.getty.edu/iris/what-did-byzantine-food-taste-like/">What did Byzantine food taste like?</a><br />
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<b>Further reading in print:</b><br />
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<a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/067974438X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=067974438X&linkCode=as2&tag=ro067-20&linkId=ff2cec79eded89e72e68d99a9c18c132" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&MarketPlace=US&ASIN=067974438X&ServiceVersion=20070822&ID=AsinImage&WS=1&Format=_SL250_&tag=ro067-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" hidden="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=am2&o=1&a=067974438X" style="border: medium none; display: none !important; margin: 0px;" width="1" />
<a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0300151357/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0300151357&linkCode=as2&tag=ro067-20&linkId=2b1a60d11936524e720fc0e6bacda5be" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&MarketPlace=US&ASIN=0300151357&ServiceVersion=20070822&ID=AsinImage&WS=1&Format=_SL250_&tag=ro067-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" hidden="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=am2&o=1&a=0300151357" style="border: medium none; display: none !important; margin: 0px;" width="1" />
<a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520286316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520286316&linkCode=as2&tag=ro067-20&linkId=0f331d15867960bc4faa27e2e6d0485d" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&MarketPlace=US&ASIN=0520286316&ServiceVersion=20070822&ID=AsinImage&WS=1&Format=_SL250_&tag=ro067-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" hidden="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=am2&o=1&a=0520286316" style="border: medium none; display: none !important; margin: 0px;" width="1" />
<a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802719910/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0802719910&linkCode=as2&tag=ro067-20&linkId=0c44e4502488a6368237ac4459b53130" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&MarketPlace=US&ASIN=0802719910&ServiceVersion=20070822&ID=AsinImage&WS=1&Format=_SL250_&tag=ro067-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" hidden="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=am2&o=1&a=0802719910" style="border: medium none; display: none !important; margin: 0px;" width="1" />
<a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520254767/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520254767&linkCode=as2&tag=ro067-20&linkId=ac9207b0353b07b1e664be66b9bddcbd" target="_blank"><img border="0" height="200" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&MarketPlace=US&ASIN=0520254767&ServiceVersion=20070822&ID=AsinImage&WS=1&Format=_SL250_&tag=ro067-20" width="158" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" hidden="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=am2&o=1&a=0520254767" style="border: medium none; display: none !important; margin: 0px;" width="1" />
<a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0275980928/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0275980928&linkCode=as2&tag=ro067-20&linkId=922839158da8f0bb30fe7009d8af7027" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&MarketPlace=US&ASIN=0275980928&ServiceVersion=20070822&ID=AsinImage&WS=1&Format=_SL250_&tag=ro067-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" hidden="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=am2&o=1&a=0275980928" style="border: medium none; display: none !important; margin: 0px;" width="1" /><br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><i> (Note: These are Amazon affiliate links, so if you buy one, a small percentage of the purchase goes to support this blog).
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-56160667165516746722017-09-21T22:21:00.003-05:002017-09-25T02:45:18.531-05:00Nassim Nicholas Taleb vs. Historians<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-tE76FnOTvRE/WcRxMFetuXI/AAAAAAAADWk/ndNpoYFp6qkkECGklbqRSQGdraYEFRkqQCLcBGAs/s1600/black-swan-1200-1200-675-675-crop-000000.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="673" data-original-width="675" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-tE76FnOTvRE/WcRxMFetuXI/AAAAAAAADWk/ndNpoYFp6qkkECGklbqRSQGdraYEFRkqQCLcBGAs/s640/black-swan-1200-1200-675-675-crop-000000.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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When I was a grad student in history, I was trained to burrow into tiny corners of the past and "unpack" everything I found there. In essence, history was a hoarder's attic, and my job was to clean out a tiny part of it. But now that I'm teaching history professionally, I have a different view of the social function of historians.<br />
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Our job isn't just to pursue a hyper-specific research project until we keel over or retire. It's to serve as the hiccocampus for the entire species. All humans have memories and personal histories, of course. But historians are the specialists who are trained to consolidate and preserve these individual stories, in all their dizzying complexity. Without history, the human species is not so different from Guy Pearce in <i>Memento</i>. I think it's a hugely important job. But it's a job that we academic historians frequently fail at, because we don't do enough to engage people who aren't our students and colleagues.<br />
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That's why I write <i>Res Obscura</i>, and it's why I'm taking some time tonight to tear <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nassim_Nicholas_Taleb">Nassim Nicholas Taleb</a>'s interpretation of history to shreds.<br />
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That's what I'll endeavor to do, at least. I leave it for you to decide whether or not I succeed. And I should say at the outset that I have no particular bone to pick with Taleb, a derivatives trader and fund manager turned NYU professor who is most famous for his bestselling book <i>The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable</i> (2007). He's clearly an intelligent and successful person. But it seems to me that he has fallen into the pit that always threatens to swallow intelligent and successful people: vanity and blind self-regard.<br />
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Now, lest I be accused of resorting to an ad hominem argument, let me get to my substantive critique of what Taleb has to say about history and historians. Namely, I'm referring to a section from his as-yet-unpublished book <i>Skin in the Game: </i><i>The Underlying Matrix of Daily Life</i>, which appears to have a February, 2018 publication date but which Taleb has been <a href="https://twitter.com/nntaleb/status/908280018320723968">previewing on his Twitter feed</a>.<br />
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I'll take what Taleb has to say about academic historians piece by piece because I find his critique to be both interesting and bizarrely wrong-headed. Here's the first bit:<br />
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-UPdCZ11wnbo/WcRzcDK789I/AAAAAAAADW4/FFFJnRINXgoe4vAnAXHYVEtw0QefJXR7QCLcBGAs/s1600/Screen%2BShot%2B2017-09-21%2Bat%2B10.20.07%2BPM.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1154" data-original-width="1086" height="400" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-UPdCZ11wnbo/WcRzcDK789I/AAAAAAAADW4/FFFJnRINXgoe4vAnAXHYVEtw0QefJXR7QCLcBGAs/s400/Screen%2BShot%2B2017-09-21%2Bat%2B10.20.07%2BPM.png" width="376" /></a></div>
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Taleb seems here to be taking a page* from Stephen Pinker's <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Better-Angels-Our-Nature-Violence/dp/0143122010">Better Angels of Our Nature</a></i>, which argued that the recent past (the last two centuries, say) have actually been <i>more</i> peaceful and <i>less </i>catastrophic than preceding centuries, despite the presence of two World Wars and other horrors. Pinker argues that the rise of mass communication has made it appear as if catastrophic events are on the rise, when in reality they were just less widely reported in the past, and were largely taken for granted. I think Pinker relies on some shaky evidence at times, but also makes a fairly compelling argument on the basis of well-attested phenomena like the decline in murder rates and the decline of capital punishment. Taleb, however, does none of this. He simply asserts that historians focus on warfare rather than peace in all times and places, and that they do so because the "salient is mistaken for the statistical."<br />
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* [Edit - evidently Taleb has managed to <a href="https://stevenpinker.com/files/comments_on_taleb_by_s_pinker.pdf">alienate and attack</a> Pinker as well, although I continue to see similarities in their approaches to history.]<br />
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By <i>who</i>, one wants to ask? For an avowed empiricist, Taleb's data are strangely elusive.<br />
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It's hard to guess what historical accounts Taleb has in mind here, since history hasn't been a simple record of battles and diplomacy since Caesar wrote <i>De Bello Gallico,</i> if it even was at that time<i>. </i>Granted, eighteenth- and nineteenth-century historians took a decidedly top-down view, and the impression we get from historians like Gibbon and Jacob Burckhardt is of a series of princes, geniuses, and villains who march through time like glorious suns, outshining the ordinary mortals around them. But since at least the early twentieth century, historians have pushed off in the opposite direction, focusing on such things as "history from below," "histories of daily life," "microhistory," "social history," and the like. As an example, the books that win <a href="https://www.historians.org/awards-and-grants/past-recipients/james-a-rawley-prize-recipients">prizes</a> and praise in my subfield of Atlantic history are about <a href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674283961&content=reviews">fisherman</a>, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Oceans-Wine-Emergence-American-Eighteenth-Century/dp/0300136056">wine merchants</a>, and "<a href="https://www.amazon.com/Two-Troubled-Souls-Eighteenth-Century-Spiritual/dp/146962642X">an eighteenth-century couple's spiritual journey,</a>" not wars. <br />
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So I truly am at a loss as to who Taleb has in mind when he writes that "we are fed a steady diet of histories of wars." The producers of the History Channel?<br />
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Onwards:<br />
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-VJhBkq6BEwE/WcR1X2jVNiI/AAAAAAAADXE/hdQUMQYmX94EKX9xrsZSGqjg_zTQymu-QCLcBGAs/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="709" data-original-width="1038" height="275" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-VJhBkq6BEwE/WcR1X2jVNiI/AAAAAAAADXE/hdQUMQYmX94EKX9xrsZSGqjg_zTQymu-QCLcBGAs/s400/Untitled.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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Oof. In my experience, people who resort to denigrating the intelligence of those they argue with typically end up on the losing side of the argument. But leaving that off to the side, Taleb sets up a straw man called "historians" here. These unnamed historians, we're told, are "motivated by stories of conflict." They don't care about people like "merchants, barbers, doctors, money changers, plumbers, prostitutes." (Damn it, we <i>love</i> those people!) And they've all ignored the French <i>Annales </i>school, which "failed to change much." </div>
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Where to begin? It was at this point in reading Taleb's argument that it began to dawn on me: in attempting to write what he thinks is a contrarian takedown of academic history, he has actually produced an argument that virtually <i>all</i> of the academic historians I know (including me) will agree with. He just managed to do it in a remarkably uncharitable way. </div>
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First of all, the French Annales school is among the most important historical movements of the twentieth century and is <i>hugely</i> influential among contemporary academic historians. Fernand Braudel, one of the leaders of the Annales School, was the historian who came up most frequently in my graduate seminars (he's also my personal favorite historian - I recommend jumping right into his masterpiece <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Structures-Everyday-Life-Civilization-Capitalism/dp/0060148454">The Structures of Everyday Life</a> </i>if you have any interest in early modern history). </div>
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In fact, all<i> </i>of the historians who Taleb singles out in a footnote to this passage as oppositional to "conventional history books" (Georges Duby, Fernand Braudel, Marc Bloch, Phillipe Ariès) are among the paragons of conventional academic history. He is basically listing the contents of a graduate history course syllabus, and using those works to mount an attack on what he believes academic history to be. As one of my favorite professors in grad school, the brilliantly curmudgeonly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._G._Hopkins">A.G. Hopkins</a> liked to say, Taleb is "pushing on an open door."</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HsuQnQpTnqE/WcR7I4q9doI/AAAAAAAADXU/vGq2JpQzp84TpU_w0aNFHqwLk7KrwZ7DQCLcBGAs/s1600/Screen%2BShot%2B2017-09-21%2Bat%2B10.52.53%2BPM.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="672" data-original-width="1010" height="265" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HsuQnQpTnqE/WcR7I4q9doI/AAAAAAAADXU/vGq2JpQzp84TpU_w0aNFHqwLk7KrwZ7DQCLcBGAs/s400/Screen%2BShot%2B2017-09-21%2Bat%2B10.52.53%2BPM.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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I haven't met any mafia debt-collectors, but I have met a few finance people. I would be willing to bet that historians have far more interesting lives than your average commodity speculator. We're not just nerds paging through tomes in "the Yale Library." Historian friends of mine have done things like getting access to the Pan Am archives to look through the <a href="http://theappendix.net/issues/2012/12/field-notes,-amazonia-1952:-found">letters preserved in a 1950s Brazilian plane crash</a>, or sitting alone in the dark with an <a href="http://www.christopherheaney.net/author-bio/">Inca mummy in Peru</a>, or <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/09/26/twenty-first-century-alchemists">recreating an alchemical lab</a> in the Columbia University chemistry department, or interviewing people in Cairo and Algeria during the height of the Arab Spring. </div>
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Hell, I'm far more boring than the examples I just listed, but even I just got back from a month in Iran, and as part of my historical research have spent time in a bad part of Rio filming illegal hot air balloon launches, have paged through letters written by Isaac Newton and George Washington, and have reconstructed <a href="https://aeon.co/essays/how-yesterday-s-drugs-become-tomorrow-s-medicines">forgotten drugs</a>. Is that boring stuff fit only for "academic temperaments"? I don't know. I think it's pretty interesting (but then, I would). At any rate, I think the definition of "adventurers and doers" and "having skin in the game" is hugely subjective here. Again, where's the empiricism?</div>
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Onwards to the end:</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-eZ86fpvpipI/WcR9IfRLVNI/AAAAAAAADXg/B1gPcp_ve7AcK-rV8_mUMh_gdnLh7_IjwCLcBGAs/s1600/Screen%2BShot%2B2017-09-21%2Bat%2B11.01.37%2BPM.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="616" data-original-width="1024" height="240" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-eZ86fpvpipI/WcR9IfRLVNI/AAAAAAAADXg/B1gPcp_ve7AcK-rV8_mUMh_gdnLh7_IjwCLcBGAs/s400/Screen%2BShot%2B2017-09-21%2Bat%2B11.01.37%2BPM.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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This is where Taleb really loses me. His killer example of how historians fall prey to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfitting">overfitting</a> is, itself, based on a misguided view of how statistics should work in history. Taleb argues that, because "six hundred thousand Italians died in the Great War," the post-reunification era of supposed stability in Italy was actually far more violent than the era of warfare that, Taleb tells us, historians believe to have characterized early modern Italy. Now, I'll just take this claim at face value and note in passing that Taleb again doesn't identify who these historians are who believe that warfare was the dominant characteristic of Renaissance Italy.</div>
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Taleb wants the reader to believe that there was in fact an <i>order of magnitude </i>more death in the Italy of the post-unification period than in the early modern period. He wants this point to do the work of demonstrating that historians tend to overstate the bad and the violent in the past, and that we confuse frequency for intensity. Fine. But he manages to ignore a glaringly obvious fact: <i>you need to compare proportions, not raw numbers, across time periods. </i>Roughly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy">40 million</a> Italians were alive in 1921. Roughly 11 million were alive in 1500. It's simply dishonest to make comparisons of total numbers of deaths in battle between these two time periods without noting this. </div>
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But again, leaving these points aside - Taleb is arguing with a nonexistent group of people here. He has somehow convinced himself that academic historians are a bunch of nerds sitting in library stacks, getting angry at current events, and channeling their frustration about the world into a vision of the past that sees everything as conflict, and ignores all the fun collaborations between barbers, prostitutes, and merchants. This is precisely the opposite of the vision of academic history that I got from grad school, and the vision that I teach in my classes at UC Santa Cruz. Now, keep in mind that I'm arguing from my own experiences here and those of my most outspoken friends, and hence I assume that Taleb, if he reads this, will accuse me of "overfitting" as well. But I have to wonder - what is he basing <i>his </i>expertise on? A <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/08/dna-romans/535701/">public spat</a> with Mary Beard and perhaps a few bad encounters in NYU hallways, squared against Taleb's newfound love for Bloch, Braudel, and <i>A History of Private Life. </i></div>
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Well Nassim, I like that stuff too. So do all the other historians I know. </div>
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Let's be friends.</div>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-35843594743107216042017-06-26T17:19:00.002-05:002017-06-27T23:52:37.283-05:00Urine, Phosphorus, and the Philosopher's Stone<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Q9uLg9gRTyA/WU4ANQ9HBeI/AAAAAAAADUE/6SbTU4sX1Zgoci9xIiMpH3K0W0RBSzXwgCLcBGAs/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bphosphor%2Balternate.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1598" data-original-width="1600" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Q9uLg9gRTyA/WU4ANQ9HBeI/AAAAAAAADUE/6SbTU4sX1Zgoci9xIiMpH3K0W0RBSzXwgCLcBGAs/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bphosphor%2Balternate.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Joseph Wright of Derby, <i>The Alchemist Discovers </i><i>Phosphorus</i><span style="text-align: left;">, 1771 (detail).</span></td></tr>
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In 1681, the English writer John Evelyn covered his face with a glowing material, newly invented by an alchemist. He turned toward a mirror, and was astonished.<br />
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“I appeared in the darke like the face of the moone, or rather like some spirit, or strange apparition,” Evelyn <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zcJ0d-iZ8CYC&pg=PA246&lpg=PA246&dq=%22the+darke+like+the+face+of+the+moone%22&source=bl&ots=UGDaoo54b_&sig=fWc9fLmU6hBrhxB202GjsYMdzAw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixhouUxtzUAhWmqFQKHYOeDesQ6AEIJzAB#v=onepage&q=%22the%20darke%20like%20the%20face%20of%20the%20moone%22&f=false">wrote</a> in his diary. This eerie substance had been given to Evelyn by a member of the Royal Society of London, Doctor Frederick Slare. It had been produced as a result of alchemical investigations by Slare and Robert Boyle into the "virtues" or “animal spirits” thought to imbue all living matter. Its mode of action was unknown, and for some reason it "had an urinous smell."<br />
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As he stared into the mirror, Evelyn’s thoughts drifted toward the Catholic Church. This was not surprising, since English politics at this time was consumed by the question of whether James, the heir to the throne and brother of King Charles II (both suspected Catholics), would be allowed to assume the throne and, potentially, unseat the Church of England as the nation's state religion. The attitude among English Protestants like Evelyn had become decidedly conspiratorial. Evelyn worried that if this “extraordinary” substance were to fall into the hands of Catholic priests, “what a miracle might they make it, supposing them either to rub the Consecreated Wafer with it, or washing the Priests face & hands with it, & doing the feate in some darke Church or Cloyster, proclaime it to the Neighborhood.”<br />
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“I am confident,” Evelyn concluded, “that the Imposture would bring thousands to them."<br />
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Evelyn also recalled that he had once seen something similar at the Piazza Navona in Rome, where “a certain Mountebank” (a public performer who sold dubious medicines) had demonstrated a seemingly magical ring that flared with a light as bright as a candle flame before he “fell to prating for the vending of his pretended Remedies.”<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-XQJ18s5s23Y/WVF96oRoQCI/AAAAAAAADUk/D7rOrI6TKSkcwWTRzevayj2LCwnC_SLRgCLcBGAs/s1600/screen-shot-2012-11-16-at-09-07-10.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="613" data-original-width="810" height="482" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-XQJ18s5s23Y/WVF96oRoQCI/AAAAAAAADUk/D7rOrI6TKSkcwWTRzevayj2LCwnC_SLRgCLcBGAs/s640/screen-shot-2012-11-16-at-09-07-10.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px;">Frontispiece woodcut of a mountebank from Salvator Winter's <i>A Pretious Treasury, or a New Dispensatory Contayning 70 approved Physical rare Receits</i> (London, 1649).</td></tr>
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Evelyn knew enough about natural philosophy to understand that this trick was not supernatural. Although he failed to obtain the recipe from the Roman mountebank years earlier, Evelyn realized that the trick depended on the so-called <i>lapis illuminabilis</i>, or glowing stone. But this new substance of 1681 seemed different. "Never did I see any [lapis illuminabilis] comparable to this," Evelyn <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zcJ0d-iZ8CYC&lpg=PA246&ots=UGDaoo54b_&dq=%22the%20darke%20like%20the%20face%20of%20the%20moone%22&pg=PA247#v=onepage&q&f=false">wrote</a>. Evelyn considered it safe enough both to paint onto his face and to consume as a medicine: on the recommendation of Robert Boyle himself, Evelyn mixed the substance with a glass of ale and quaffed it down, enjoying the "agreeable amber scent" of his cocktail and anticipating benefits to his health.<br />
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This eerie glowing substance, in other words, was not just a chemical experiment, but a medicinal drug.<br />
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And, what's more, it was a drug made out of huge amounts of human urine.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-x-peoup3Y24/WU4CaFDRRlI/AAAAAAAADUQ/T2YV_B1FvHUTUkxW8OrkIz6UgI0PW2p9wCLcBGAs/s1600/mw08141.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="585" height="400" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-x-peoup3Y24/WU4CaFDRRlI/AAAAAAAADUQ/T2YV_B1FvHUTUkxW8OrkIz6UgI0PW2p9wCLcBGAs/s400/mw08141.jpg" width="295" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John Evelyn by Robert Walker, circa 1648.</td></tr>
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Before we get to that, though, what exactly was the the phenomenon that Evelyn observed? The 1681 substance was an early example of the phenomenon that is today known as phosphorescence, after the chemical element phosphorus. The name itself means "light-bearer" and comes from the Greek word Φωσφόρος [<i>phosphoros</i>]. Interestingly, the same word was used to describe Satan in the Old Testament. When the Bible was translated into Latin, <i>phosphoros</i> turned into the more familiar devilish epithet "Lucifer."<br />
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It's not an unfitting association. When white phosphorus encounters oxygen, it undergoes a process known as chemiluminescence, a chemical reaction that results in the emission of light. In the specific case of phosphor, two molecules called HPO and P2O2 are produced via oxidation that emit a mild greenish glow. In later centuries, however, it was discovered that white phosphorus could also be turned into a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_phosphorus_munitions">gruesome weapon</a>.<br />
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Although phosphorus wasn't formally identified as an element until the work of Lavoisier in 1777, it had been known in various forms to natural philosophers and alchemists from the early seventeenth century onwards. By 1680, these recipes had made their way to the laboratory of Robert Boyle, who in that year produced a phosphorescent compound that, he wrote, "shone so briskly and lookt so oddly that the sight was extreamly pleasing, having in it a mixture of strangeness, beauty and frightfulness."<br />
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Boyle had apparently learned of the substance from a German alchemist who, in turn, borrowed the formula for phosphorus from one Hennig Brand. Like many natural philosophers of his generation, Brand was passionately invested in the search for the Philosopher's Stone. This was a hypothetical substance that could transform base metals like lead into gold. Some also speculated that its transformative powers might also grant immortality. By 1669, Brand's search had led him down a somewhat unexpected path: he believed that human urine might hold the key.<br />
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Brand certainly couldn't be accused of being lazy. By <a href="http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2016/02/02/465188104/phosphorus-starts-with-pee-in-this-tale-of-scientific-serendipity">one account</a>, the total amount of urine he collected for his alchemical work amounted to 1500 gallons (note, however, that I haven't been able to find this figure in any peer-reviewed sources, so it's likely apocryphal). During one investigation of its chemical properties, Brand found that when urine was boiled down into a thick syrup, a red oil could be skimmed off the top of it. This he collected, refined, and heated for around sixteen hours. The resulting distillate produced flames upon encountering open air. It also produced an eerie glow. Brand had identified the trace amounts of phosphorus that occur naturally in urine.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hKw6b37OpLo/WUzQvGd_jWI/AAAAAAAADTo/E0h_GKQdUXImY_EqZdKCpkdYx9ubvp6awCLcBGAs/s1600/De_kwakzalver_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-392.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1565" data-original-width="1600" height="626" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hKw6b37OpLo/WUzQvGd_jWI/AAAAAAAADTo/E0h_GKQdUXImY_EqZdKCpkdYx9ubvp6awCLcBGAs/s640/De_kwakzalver_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-392.jpeg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Detail from <i>The Quack Doctor</i>, attributed to Jan Steen, 1650s.</td></tr>
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This was probably not the first time that a chemiluminescent subject had been investigated by alchemists. Recalling the secret of the mountebank's glowing ring in Rome, Evelyn complained that "though there is a process in Jo. Baptista Porta and others how to do it, yet on several trials they none of them have succeeded." This was a reference to the recipes for glowing stones or liquids that circulated in a number of 16th and 17th century works of natural magic, such as Gianbattista della Porta's <i>Magia Naturalis, </i>which was first published in Naples in 1558.<br />
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An early example of such a stone was associated with one Vincenzo Casiorola who discovered a mineral which he called <i>lapis solaris </i>(solar stone) that, after being heated on a flame and exposed to sunlight, was capable of glowing in the dark. Theories regarding these forms of phosphoresence typically involved beliefs about the ability of materials to "store" the essence of the sun or of other forms of light. Urine and other products of the human body were thus of great interest, since if (as many early modern philosophers argued) there was indeed something divine in human bodies which permitted the use of reason and communion with God, then perhaps residues of this could be detected in the substances cast off by the body.<br />
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In other words, phosphorus shared a name with the Devil, but its unexplainable glow promised to unlock philosophers' understanding of the Divine.<br />
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By the middle decades of the eighteenth century, when experiments with phosphorus had become widespread, chemistry was beginning to come into its own as a discipline distinct from alchemy. The degree of difference between seventeenth-century alchemy and eighteenth-century chemistry has sometimes been overstated, and it was by no means the case that the generation that followed in the footsteps of Boyle and Brand abandoned their spiritual beliefs or sense of divine mission. But we can see signs of a larger shift here.<br />
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To the generation of natural philosophers who worked in the second half of the eighteenth century, Evelyn's fear that Catholic priests might harness phosphorescent substances to awe their congregations would likely have sounded quaint. Phosphorus was now firmly in the domain of the man of science, not of the priest or the mountebank. And the search for the philosopher's stone had been replaced by the search for the fundamental building blocks of chemistry and pharmacology, from hydrogen (discovered in 1766) and oxygen (discovered in 1772) to psychoactive compounds like morphine (first isolated and scientifically described in 1804) and caffeine (1819). <br />
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The images of Joseph Wright of Derby, a painter who documented and participated in the earliest phases of what is now called the Industrial Revolution, can give us a visual insight into this shift. Like Caravaggio and Georges de la Tour before him, Wright was fascinated by images that relied upon a single light source to produce a high-contrast <i>chiaroscuro</i> effect, picking out dots of light amid dark shadows.<br />
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Wright's 1771 painting <i>The Alchemist Discovering Phosphorus </i>looked backwards to an older era of chemical investigation, depicting a bearded natural philosopher in a rib-vaulted chamber staring in awe at the glowing gas emanating from a retort. The only other source of the light in the image is the glow of the moon through a Gothic arch, lending a mystical quality to the scene, and recalling the Catholic past that England was rapidly forgetting.<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ceJsxQfozxM/WVGC9d2djKI/AAAAAAAADUs/0N6hUvUFtBQ_SSnrQi_oYzgRn3ikLG4TwCLcBGAs/s1600/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="787" data-original-width="600" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ceJsxQfozxM/WVGC9d2djKI/AAAAAAAADUs/0N6hUvUFtBQ_SSnrQi_oYzgRn3ikLG4TwCLcBGAs/s640/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg" width="488" /></a></div>
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But it was a painting that Wright had created some years earlier, circa 1763, that seemed to point toward a new and uncertain future. In Wright's <i>A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery</i>, there are no moons beyond the tiny artificial satellites orbiting a mechanical sun. The Gothic background has been replaced by a sturdy row of bound volumes, and the bearded alchemist has become a clean-shaven philosopher.<br />
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An unseen glow, mimicking that of the sun itself, shines on the faces of the three young boys clustered around the structure like a new dawn.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-uR85-zDQDCw/WVGDAgk2UnI/AAAAAAAADUw/91V4b9ZCYwoxNJJvaH6Tmi1Sjo3Bv2TJQCLcBGAs/s1600/Sect3%252B2.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1123" data-original-width="1600" height="448" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-uR85-zDQDCw/WVGDAgk2UnI/AAAAAAAADUw/91V4b9ZCYwoxNJJvaH6Tmi1Sjo3Bv2TJQCLcBGAs/s640/Sect3%252B2.jpeg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-18630434661719501722017-05-04T01:40:00.000-05:002017-05-06T19:00:06.524-05:00Why Are There So Many 17th Century Paintings of Monkeys Getting Drunk?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cVjfyD_b0Yw/WQrBhhARiFI/AAAAAAAADQw/03KN4Ni9nD4yy9fiQl3Z2VL7DZDGyjFkQCLcB/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bdrunk%2Bmonkeys.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cVjfyD_b0Yw/WQrBhhARiFI/AAAAAAAADQw/03KN4Ni9nD4yy9fiQl3Z2VL7DZDGyjFkQCLcB/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bdrunk%2Bmonkeys.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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One cold Friday in 1660, Samuel Pepys encountered two unpleasant surprises. "At home found all well," he wrote in his diary, "but the monkey loose, which did anger me, and so I did strike her." Later that night, a candlemaker named Will Joyce (the good-for-nothing husband of one of Pepys's cousins) stumbled in on Pepys and his aunt while "drunk, and in a talking vapouring humour of his state, and I know not what, which did vex me cruelly." Presumably, Pepys didn't resort to blows this time around.</div>
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The two objects of Pepys' scorn that day, his disobedient pet monkey and his drunken cousin-in-law, were not as distant as one might think. Monkeys stood in for intoxicated humans on a surprisingly frequent basis in 17th century culture. In early modern paintings, tippling primates can frequently be seen in human clothing, smoking tobacco, playing cards, rolling dice, and just plain getting wasted.<br />
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Why?<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-LRJMWznu_YA/WQq6Iz3mn6I/AAAAAAAADQQ/v3UL09y3wSIt9hWUmpH5JNu-wVVCtlJUACLcB/s1600/b17ed6252cb172fbe62f321085df7c0b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="480" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-LRJMWznu_YA/WQq6Iz3mn6I/AAAAAAAADQQ/v3UL09y3wSIt9hWUmpH5JNu-wVVCtlJUACLcB/s640/b17ed6252cb172fbe62f321085df7c0b.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">One of several "monkeys in a tavern" paintings produced by the Dutch artist David Teniers (1610-1690).</td></tr>
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The most simple answer is that these paintings are the early modern version of searching for "dog who thinks he's a human" on YouTube. They're funny. Paintings of intoxicated monkeys were actually a sub-set of a larger genre of paintings known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singerie">Singerie</a>, which poked fun at occupations ranging from drunkard to painter by portraying the participants as frivolous simians.<br />
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There's clearly something universal about the basic idea of these works. As anyone who has read Aesop's fables or a watched a Disney movie can attest, depictions of animals with human characteristics allow us to satirize or mythologize ordinary human encounters. Thinking about animals as personalities that can recite poetry, hatch political schemes, or get drunk at a tavern allows us to see our own behavior and that of our fellow humans through a slightly off-kilter filter, as if we were aliens observing a different species.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-gqxuE0Evp74/WQrANpWJOoI/AAAAAAAADQk/Wk_Fb3cnEuMsrQi2fLEy-FFZ1esq9TJOQCLcB/s1600/maxresdefault.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="450" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-gqxuE0Evp74/WQrANpWJOoI/AAAAAAAADQk/Wk_Fb3cnEuMsrQi2fLEy-FFZ1esq9TJOQCLcB/s640/maxresdefault.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Crow King and his Councillors, from a 13th century manuscript of <i>Kalila wa Dimna, </i>the Arabic version of the <i>Pachatantra</i> animal stories originally from India.</td></tr>
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In these 16th and 17th century European depictions of monkeys, however, I think there's something more specific going on.<br />
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Monkeys in these paintings are almost always shown with a
tobacco pipe or wine cup close at hand, and they’re often brandishing the same
types of items displayed in a popular series of images (discussed <a href="https://resobscura.blogspot.com/2015/12/the-alchemy-of-madness.html">in a previous post</a>) showing a foolish young man being cleansed of his materialistic desires via alchemical medicine: playing
cards, backgammon boards, fencing swords, ostrich feather caps.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-VGvMeiEnqhI/WQrJybbquiI/AAAAAAAADRQ/LIp1eiZf7Bc5w9gJ-_BiZKOhEK4evxnFACLcB/s1600/28362086996_9c9fcf7f1f_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="432" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-VGvMeiEnqhI/WQrJybbquiI/AAAAAAAADRQ/LIp1eiZf7Bc5w9gJ-_BiZKOhEK4evxnFACLcB/s640/28362086996_9c9fcf7f1f_o.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Kwakzalver</i> [Quack] selling a patent medicine in the marketplace, by Pieter van der Borcht, ca. late 16th century.</td></tr>
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In other images, monkeys are also shown in the guise of alchemists and
drug sellers, poking fun at the pretensions of these two professions that
were carving out an ever-greater economic and social role for themselves as <a href="https://resobscura.blogspot.com/2010/07/drug-merchant-in-seventeenth-century.html">exotic drugs from the Indies</a> became global commodities.<br />
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So what is going on with these images showing drunken and drug-selling monkeys? I think that what we're missing when we simply see these as a form of social satire is that these are also paintings about <i>addiction</i>. Desire is a dominant theme in these works: monkeys are shown jealously squabbling over piles of tobacco, or even, in the example below, hoarding tulip flowers during the height of the Dutch tulipmania (they appear to be using the profits to get drunk, in the upper left).<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4sE54vQzTuU/WQrJfHKgzGI/AAAAAAAADRM/-Z1HBrY9Ng0k1bSqVsWi23NviYF28-X4gCLcB/s1600/27778702184_17072488f8_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4sE54vQzTuU/WQrJfHKgzGI/AAAAAAAADRM/-Z1HBrY9Ng0k1bSqVsWi23NviYF28-X4gCLcB/s640/27778702184_17072488f8_o.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Allegorie der Tulipomanie </i>[Allegory of Tulip Mania], by Jan Brueghel the Younger, 1640s.</td></tr>
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The concept of addiction had not yet taken on anything like its modern form in this period. The <i>word</i> existed, but it simply meant an inclination or tendency: one could be "addicted to horses" or "addicted to song," etc. But the 17th century was a world in which distilled alcoholic spirits were still a relatively new invention, and one in which such addictive substances as tobacco, coffee and opium had become available to most global consumers within living memory of the people creating and buying these paintings.<br />
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In other words, these paintings are working through the idea that newly-available psychoactive substances -- and, perhaps, material objects as well -- could dehumanize those who consumed them, reducing them to an animalistic level. Such consumers, it is implied, had moved down a step on the chain of being, having lost their powers of reason and been reduced to creatures that were "sentient" in the original sense of the word: unable to think, and content simply to <i>feel</i>. They had moved from the human realm to that of the "brute beasts" in the schema for hierarchically ordering nature that medieval and early modern thinkers had inherited from Aristotle.<br />
<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-SaKPKgO0lA4/WQrIQSkpEaI/AAAAAAAADRA/58e5DNELRdsLB-mDzOCfzloAZWYg_ANWwCLcB/s1600/ib_0021_resized.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="578" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-SaKPKgO0lA4/WQrIQSkpEaI/AAAAAAAADRA/58e5DNELRdsLB-mDzOCfzloAZWYg_ANWwCLcB/s640/ib_0021_resized.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A depiction of the "Great Chain of Being" from a 1512 edition of Ramon Lull's <i>De ascensu & descensu intellectus </i>(1305). The steps are labelled, in ascending order, "Stone," "Fire," "Plant," "Brute," "Human," "Heaven," "Angel," and "God."</td></tr>
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We see this argument in some written texts of the period as well. For King James, writing in his <a href="https://www.laits.utexas.edu/poltheory/james/blaste/blaste.html"><i>Counterblaste to Tobacco </i>of 1604</a>, the fashion for imitating the foolish novelties
of lands “beyond the Seas” made English tobacco smokers “like Apes, counterfeiting
the manners of others, to our owne destruction.” The adoption of
tobacco smoking in Europe was not simply an issue of public health, but a
spiritual crisis. Because he knew that tobacco was an element in indigenous
American spirituality, James believed that Europeans who consumed it risked
transforming not only their bodies, but their minds and souls, too.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
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But there's an alternative narrative running through these paintings as well. It epitomizes the ambivalence that has long surrounded intoxicating substances, in many cultures and in many times.<br />
<br />
These monkeys seem to be having fun.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-BvD3umOMhzk/WQrLnhNabmI/AAAAAAAADRo/eXPUgTxkE0IoQOqqpVp8wkva2Jh6_sY_QCLcB/s1600/27779399753_5a2f8cb96d_c.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="496" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-BvD3umOMhzk/WQrLnhNabmI/AAAAAAAADRo/eXPUgTxkE0IoQOqqpVp8wkva2Jh6_sY_QCLcB/s640/27779399753_5a2f8cb96d_c.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Die tabakrauchende Affenrunde</i> [The Tobacco Smoking Monkeys], attributed to Ferdinand van Kessel, 17th century.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VmWEz6nc2Lo/WQrLniMZEAI/AAAAAAAADRg/PdkcGczEfNQ705a6v_SmXWwctaut751NgCLcB/s1600/27779396993_3d8f78e198_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="440" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VmWEz6nc2Lo/WQrLniMZEAI/AAAAAAAADRg/PdkcGczEfNQ705a6v_SmXWwctaut751NgCLcB/s640/27779396993_3d8f78e198_o.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Singerie with smoking pipe, David Teniers the Younger, 17th century.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-n0HypdEDPgY/WQrLop8N58I/AAAAAAAADR0/pbYWBNsbSlYwo5w8VNdZVSjK6Bb1JcqkwCLcB/s1600/Jan_Breughel_I-Singerie.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="480" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-n0HypdEDPgY/WQrLop8N58I/AAAAAAAADR0/pbYWBNsbSlYwo5w8VNdZVSjK6Bb1JcqkwCLcB/s640/Jan_Breughel_I-Singerie.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Monkeys Feasting </i>by Breughel the Younger.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BtMGYx56iaA/WQrLnvwikoI/AAAAAAAADR4/Rq43LIOyXfsbh2ocq9vYXXoBQ0zm8aUmgCEw/s1600/27779399303_5314be04d1_b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="385" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BtMGYx56iaA/WQrLnvwikoI/AAAAAAAADR4/Rq43LIOyXfsbh2ocq9vYXXoBQ0zm8aUmgCEw/s640/27779399303_5314be04d1_b.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Monkey soldiers taking a cat prisoner, Sebastian Vrancx, early 17th century.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
You can find more images of singerie paintings in an <a href="https://publicdomainreview.org/collections/the-singerie-monkeys-acting-as-humans-in-art/">online gallery</a> at the<i> Public Domain Review</i>. Here's a particular favorite:<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-gD6mTc2bMfM/WQrLnwgGpqI/AAAAAAAADRw/SRrlLwHi884LYNEuA1z1CYmMTKUmheIlACLcB/s1600/28362078876_fe769a2565_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="498" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-gD6mTc2bMfM/WQrLnwgGpqI/AAAAAAAADRw/SRrlLwHi884LYNEuA1z1CYmMTKUmheIlACLcB/s640/28362078876_fe769a2565_z.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-81238340697373326002017-04-08T12:05:00.001-05:002017-04-09T11:48:24.219-05:00On the Women’s Petition Against Coffee of 1674<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Bszdh_4WrnA/WOkUuUSkL1I/AAAAAAAADPE/Qgt1oG9QsjwH9J19h5Og1u-BzDL6fkm4wCLcB/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bcoffee.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="640" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>“That Newfangled, Abominable, Heathenish Liquor called COFFEE.”</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Imagine
a space where you can bet on bear fights, warm your legs by the fire, witness public
dissections (human and animal), solicit prostitutes (male and female), buy and
sell stocks, purchase tulips or pornographic pamphlets, observe the activities
of spies, dissidents, merchants, and swindlers, and then read your mail, delivered
directly to your table. The thread tying it all together is a new drug from the
Muslim world—black, odiferous, frightening, bewitching—called <span style="font-family: inherit;">“</span>coffee.</span></span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">”</span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">The seventeenth-century coffee shop was an experimental social space whose closest correlate in the modern world is not a place at all: it's the Internet. The main characteristic of seventeenth-century coffee houses was the diversity of experiences and activities they harbored. As <a href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/shapin/files/shapin_lrbcoffee.pdf">Steve Shapin once put it</a>, a visitor to an early modern coffee house could “witness the dissection of a dolphin, the display of an elephant or a rhinoceros, or an exhibition of a child with three penises and a woman with three breasts,” then proceed to take a bath, purchase life insurance, and “buy books, paintings, or whale oil at a candle auction.”</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Also like
the Internet, the early modern coffee shop was deeply paradoxical. It was a haven
for free speech but also a target for the nascent surveillance state. It was a
place where different social classes mixed but also one that enforced rigid
gender rules: if they weren’t serving drinks or working as prostitutes, women typically weren’t
allowed. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">At
the center of the paradox stood coffee itself, a drink that today seems utterly
benign (and perhaps even beneficial), but which many early modern Europeans
looked on with deep suspicion. For one thing, it was a drug with deep roots in
the Muslim world. It was spread in large part by Jewish or Armenian immigrants from
the Ottoman Empire. And it had distinctive sensory and psychoactive characteristics
which many Europeans—familiar with alcohol but not such much with stimulants—found bewildering. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-crIUZTrUBqo/WOklS6JZ_jI/AAAAAAAADPo/IxbH2nr7ogcYgLJmB2Vir2lZ_THkOw2ZgCLcB/s1600/1650-womens-petition-against-coffee.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-crIUZTrUBqo/WOklS6JZ_jI/AAAAAAAADPo/IxbH2nr7ogcYgLJmB2Vir2lZ_THkOw2ZgCLcB/s320/1650-womens-petition-against-coffee.jpg" width="224" /></a><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Perhaps the most famous objection to coffee came from an anonymous
source. “The Womens Petition Against Coffee,” a pamphlet issued in London in
1674, is among the most entertaining and vividly-written historical texts that
I know of. Like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://theappendix.net/posts/2013/06/this-misterie-of-fucking-a-sex-manual-from-1680">The School of Venus</a></i>,
a 1680 sex manual whose cover displays a group of women crowded
around a dildo-merchant, there is something jarringly frank about the petition
that I find both funny and illuminating. The basic argument is that coffee was
making the men of London unable to satisfy their wives in bed. Here’s a sample
of the language it uses:</span></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">We have read, how a Prince of <i>Spain
</i>was forced to make a Law, that Men should not Repeat the <i>Grand
Kindness</i> to their Wives, above NINE times a night; but Alas! Alas!
Those forwards Days are gone… For the continual flipping of this pitiful drink
is enough to <i>bewitch</i> Men of two and twenty, and tie up the <i>Codpiece-points</i> without
a Charm. It renders them that use it as <i>Lean</i> as Famine, as
Rivvel'd as <i>Envy</i>, or an old meager Hagg over-ridden by an Incubus.
They come from it with nothing <i>moist</i> but their snotty Noses,
nothing <i>stiffe</i> but their Joints, nor <i>standing</i> but
their Ears.</span></span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">In the end, the petition calls for a ban
on coffee among men below the age of “three score” (sixty) and encourages the
drinking of “lusty” beer, “Cock-Ale,” and chocolate instead of “that Newfangled,
Abominable, Heathenish Liquor called COFFEE,” which, in the pamphlet’s
memorable phrasing, has made London’s men “run the hazard of being <i>Cuckol'd</i> by <i>Dildo's.</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">”</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">To
me, the “Womens Petition” is one of the representative texts of the era that
historians call the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_(England)">Restoration</a>, the three decades of experimentation with sex, drugs,
social relations and literary forms that followed the religious fanaticism and warfare
of Cromwell’s Interregnum. Among other things, this is the period when women
were finally allowed to act on public theater stages (previously, as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shakespeare in Love</i> depicts, women’s
roles in plays were performed by adolescent boys in drag). It is also the
period when female writers like Aphra Behn began to win widespread recognition
in print, and when the earliest multinational corporations, like the English
East India Company, became militarized and pseudo-governmental forces in
regions like coastal India and West Africa, driving the dark side of global
capitalism with their booming trade in drugs, textiles, and slaves. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">In
other words, it was a time not unlike our own, marked by globalization, debates
about human rights, political upheaval, new drugs, new technologies, and new
experiences. So we shouldn’t be too surprised that a place like the coffee
house and a drink like coffee elicited some serious backlash. What is
surprising, to me, is that the backlash was itself so experimental, raucous,
and ultimately light-hearted. The petition (which many scholars suspect was
actually written by a man, although this is impossible to prove) is basically a
work of humor, even though it does present an exaggerated version of a position
that many early opponents of coffee actually believed in. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">In
the end, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streisand_effect">Streisand effect</a> was in play in the 17<sup>th</sup> century just
like the 21<sup>st</sup>: the public outcry against coffee’s “heathen” Turkish
origins and its strange physical effects also served to increase public
interest in it. In fact, as <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zhzVN39UciQC&lpg=PR1&dq=%22women's%20petition%20against%20coffee%22%20cowan&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q=%22women's%20petition%22&f=false">Brian Cowan points out</a>, the joking tone of these
pamphlets may have aided the spread of coffee: “by self-consciously exaggerating
the sober warnings of contemporary medical opinion, the texts actually deflated
the gravity of those concerns.” <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">One
is reminded here of the gently mocking tone used by the natural philosopher
Robert Hooke in his report to the Royal Society on the effects of a (to him)
exotic drug known as bangue or Indian hemp, better known today as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cannabis indica</i>: “there is no Cause of
Fear, tho' possibly there may be of Laughter.”</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">But
why, if both drugs were available to English consumers and both escaped
outright condemnation, did coffee triumph whereas cannabis remained obscure in
Europe until the 19</span><sup style="font-family: inherit;">th</sup><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"> century? More on that soon.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ZFDMzDgY7N4/WOkU55FnSzI/AAAAAAAADPI/ZARcth58vCoZO0KFhiYZUttyTjvVwQh1gCLcB/s1600/Interior_of_a_London_Coffee-house%252C_17th_century.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" height="408" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ZFDMzDgY7N4/WOkU55FnSzI/AAAAAAAADPI/ZARcth58vCoZO0KFhiYZUttyTjvVwQh1gCLcB/s640/Interior_of_a_London_Coffee-house%252C_17th_century.JPG" width="640" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Painting of a London coffee house signed "A.S. 1668," via Wikimedia Commons.</i></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Here's the full
text of the “Women’s Petition Against Coffee”:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">THE
WOMENS PETITION AGAINST COFFEE<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Representing
to Publick Consideration the Grand Inconveniencies accruing to their Sex from
the Excessive Use of that drying, Enfeebling Liquor. Presented to the Right
Honorable the Keepers of the Liberty of Venus. By a Well-willer<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">London,
Printed 1674.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">To the Right Honorable the Keepers of the Liberties of
Venus; The Worshipful Court of Female Assistants, &c.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Humble Petitions and Address of Several Thousands of Buxome Good-Women,
Languishing in Extremity of Want.</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">The Occasion of which Insufferable <i>Disaster</i>, after a furious
Enquiry, and Discussion of the Point by the Learned of the <i>Faculty</i>,
we can Attribute to nothing more than the Excessive use of that Newfangled,
Abominable, Heathenish Liquor called COFFEE, which Riffling Nature of her
Choicest <i>Treasures</i>, and <i>Drying</i> up the <i>Radical
Moisture</i>, has so <i>Eunucht</i> our Husbands, and Cripple our
more kind <i>Gallants</i>, that they are become as <i>Impotent</i> as
Age, and as unfruitful as those <i>Desarts</i> whence that unhappy <i>Berry</i> is
said to be brought.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">For the continual flipping of this pitiful drink is enough to <i>bewitch</i> Men
of two and twenty, and tie up the <i>Codpiece-points</i> without a
Charm. It renders them that use it as <i>Lean</i> as Famine, as
Rivvel'd as <i>Envy</i>, or an old meager Hagg over-ridden by an Incubus.
They come from it with nothing <i>moist</i> but their snotty Noses,
nothing <i>stiffe</i> but their Joints, nor <i>standing</i> but
their Ears: They pretend 'twill keep them <i>Waking</i>, but we find by
scurvy Experience, they <i>sleep quietly</i> enough after it. A
Betrothed <i>Queen</i> might trust her self a bed with one of them,
without the nice Caution of a <i>sword</i> between them: nor can call
all the Art we use revive them from this Lethargy, so unfit they are for
Action, that like young Train-band-men when called upon Duty, their <i>Ammunition</i> is
wanting; peradventure they <i>Present</i>, but cannot give <i>Fire</i>,
or at least do but <i>flash in the Pan</i>, instead of doing executions.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Nor let any Doating, Superstitious <i>Catos</i> shake their
Goatish <i>Beards</i>, and task us of <i>Immodesty</i> for this
Declaration, since 'tis a publick Grievance, and cries alound for Reformation. <i>Weight</i> and <i>Measure</i>,
'tis well known, should go throughout the world, and there is no torment like
Famishment. Experience witnesses our Damage, and Necessity (which easily
supersedes all the Laws of Decency) justifies our complaints: For can any Woman
of <i>Sense</i> or <i>Spirit</i> endure with Patience, that
when priviledg'd by Legal Ceremonies, she approaches the Nuptial Bed, expecting
a Man that with <i>Sprightly </i>Embraces, should Answer the Vigour of her
Flames, she on the contrary should only meat <i>A Bedful of Bones</i>, and
hug a meager useless Corpse rendred as <i>sapless</i> as a <i>Kixe</i>,
and dryer than a <i>Pumice-Stone</i>, by the perpetual Fumes of <i>Tobacco</i>,
and bewitching effects of this most pernitious COFFEE, where by Nature is
Enfeebled, the Off-spring of our Mighty Ancestors <i>Dwindled</i> into
a Succession of <i>Apes</i> and <i>Pigmies</i>: and<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">---<i>The Age of Man</i></span></span></span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Now Cramp't into an Inch, that was a
Span.</span></span></i><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Nor is this (though more than enough!) <i>All</i> the ground of
our Complaint: For besides, we have reason to apprehend and grow <i>Jealous,</i> That
Men by frequenting these <i>Stygian Tap-houses</i> will usurp on our
Prerogative of <i>tattling</i>, and soon learn to exceed us in <i>Talkativeness</i>:
a Quality wherein our Sex has ever Claimed preheminence: For here like so many <i>Frogs</i> in
a <i>puddle</i>, they sup muddy water, and murmur insignificant notes till
half a dozen of them <i>out-babble</i> an equal number of us at a <i>Gossipping</i>,
talking all at once in Confusion, and running from point to point as
insensibly, and swiftly, as ever the Ingenous <i>Pole-wheel</i> could
run divisions on the Base-viol; yet in all their prattle every one abounds in
his own sense, as stiffly as a Quaker at the late <i>Barbican</i> Dispute,
and submits to the Reasons of no other mortal: so that there being neither <i>Moderator</i> nor <i>Rules</i> observ'd,
you mas as soon fill a Quart pot with <i>Syllogismes</i>, as profit by
their Discourses.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Certainly our Countrymens pallates are become as <i>Fantastical</i> as
their Brains; how ellse is't possible they should <i>Apostatize</i> from
the good old primitve way of Ale-drinking, to run a <i>whoring</i> after
such variety of distructive <i>Foreign</i> Liquors, to trifle away
their <i>time</i>, scald their <i>Chops</i>, and spend their <i>Money,</i> all
for a little <i>base, black, thick, nasty, bitter, stinking, nauseous</i> Puddle-water:
Yet (as all Witches have their Charms) so this ugly <i>Turskish </i>Enchantress
by certain <i>Invisible Wyres</i> attracts both Rich and Poor; so
that those that have scarece <i>Twopence</i> to buy their Children <i>Bread</i>,
must spend a penny each evening in this <i>Insipid</i> Stuff: Nor can
we send one of our Husbands to <i>Call a Midwife</i>, or borrow a <i>Glister-pipe</i>,
but he must stay an hour by the way drinking his two <i>Dishes</i>, &
two Pipes.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">At these Houses (as at the Springs in <i>Afric</i>) meet all sorts of
Animals, whence follows the production of a thousand Monster Opinions and
Absurdities; yet for being dangerous to Government, we dare to be their
Compurgators, as well knowing them to be too tame and too talkative to make any
desperate Politicians: For though they may now and then destroy a Fleet, or
kill ten thousand of the <i>French</i>, more than all the Confederates can
do, yet this is still in their politick Capacities, for by their personal
valour they are scarce fit to be of the Life-guard to a Cherry-tree: and
therefore, though they frequently have hot Contests about most Important
Subjects; as what colour the Red Sea is of; whether the Great Turk be a
Lutheran or a Calvinist; who <i>Cain's</i> Father in Law was, <i>&c.</i>,
yet they never fight about them with any other save our Weapon, the Tongue.</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Tom Farthing, Tom Farthing, <br /> </span></i><i style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">where has
thou been, Tom Farthing? <br /> </span></i><i style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Twelve a Clock e're you come in, <br /> </span></i><i style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Two a
clock ere you begin</span></i></blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Wherefore the <i>Premises</i> considered, and to the end that our
Just <i>Rights</i> may be restored, and all the Ancient <i>Priviledges</i> of
our Sex preserved inviolable; That our Husbands may give us some other <i>Testimonial</i> of
their being Men, besides their <i>Beards</i> and wearing of empty <i>Pantaloons</i>:
That they no more run the hazard of being <i>Cuckol'd</i> by <i>Dildo's</i>:
But returning to the good old strengthening Liquors of our Forefathers; that
Natures <i>Exchequer</i> may once again be replenisht, and a Race of
Lusty Here's begot, able by their Atchievements, to equal the Glories of our
Ancesters.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">We <i>Humbly Pray</i>, That you our Trusty Patrons would improve your
Interest, that henceforth the <i>Drinking COFFEE</i> may on severe
penalties be forbidden to all Persons under the Age of <i>Threescore</i>;
and that instead thereof, <i>Lusty nappy Beer, Cock-Ale, Cordial Canaries,
Restoring Malago's,</i> and <i>Back-recruiting Chochole</i> be
Recommended to General Use, throughout the <i>Utopian</i> Territories.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">In hopes of which Glorious Reformation,
your <i>Petitioners</i> shall readily <i>Prostrate</i> themselves,
and ever <i>Pray,</i> &c.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">FINIS.</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
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<span style="color: #292528; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">You can read the <a href="http://www.staff.uni-giessen.de/gloning/tx/mens-answer-1674.htm">“Men’s Response” here. </a></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-90130107860810376412016-02-02T21:21:00.005-06:002020-06-12T00:01:45.580-05:00How to Write the History of Science? <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-B71GrSbUEvk/VrFsG1CGx8I/AAAAAAAACbo/2cGG7-uMNc0/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bscience.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-B71GrSbUEvk/VrFsG1CGx8I/AAAAAAAACbo/2cGG7-uMNc0/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bscience.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Metallurgist testing a new alloy from <i>New Frontiers in Science</i> (1964), a vintage textbook I bought from a retired science teacher in Austin, TX a few years ago. </td></tr>
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<i>Is the history of science fundamentally different from other kinds of history? The composition of PhD programs would seem to suggest that academia believes the answer to this is yes, because <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=%22department+of+the+history+of+science%22">many of the world's leading universities</a> have carved out separate, standalone departments devoted to the field. And I suspect most scientists would agree as well - after all, the desire to become a scientist is often powerfully linked to a belief in science as an historical force, as something which has shaped our present and will improve our future. </i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>However, the question of </i>why<i> the history of science is different is a difficult one to agree on. Scientists themselves hold widely divergent views on the history and future of their own discipline - not just on a big-picture level, but also in regards to concrete details relating to the authorship and nature of scientific discoveries. Virtually everyone agrees that the CRISPR gene-editing technique is a breakthrough, quite possibly one destined to win a Nobel prize. But as we saw last month with the dueling articles <a href="https://secure.jbs.elsevierhealth.com/action/getSharedSiteSession?rc=1&redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cell.com%2Fcell%2Fpdf%2FS0092-8674%2815%2901705-5.pdf&code=cell-site">"Heroes of CRISPR"</a> and <a href="http://www.michaeleisen.org/blog/?p=1825">"The Villain of CRISPR,"</a> even some of the principal figures involved can't agree about who exactly is responsible for it, let alone what its effects and legacy will be. </i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>Which brings me to an exchange I recently had with the historian of science David Wootton, who recently published a widely-reviewed, epic history of the Scientific Revolution called </i>The Invention of Science<i>. I reviewed the book alongside the physicist Steven Weinberg's </i>To Explain the World<i> last month for </i>The Chronicle Review<i>, which you can <a href="http://chronicle.com/article/VialError/234826">read in full here</a>. </i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>Although I found much to admire in both books, I also questioned some of the approaches to writing and thinking about scientific discovery on display in them. I won't rehash the review here, but I did think it would be worthwhile to link to David Wootton's lengthy and highly erudite response to my review, available here on his book's website:</i><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.inventionofscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/breen.pdf"><span id="goog_1478665943"></span>"A Reply to Benjamin Breen."</a><span id="goog_1478665944"></span><br />
<br />
<i> ...and to post what I wrote in reply to Professor Wootton (see below, lightly edited for length). Wootton and Weinberg's books have prompted an interesting and ongoing debate among historians of science in the past few months (see <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-to-explain-the-world-by-steven-weinberg-1423863226">here</a>, <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v524/n7566/full/524412a.html">here</a>, <a href="http://philipball.blogspot.com/2015/12/talking-about-talking-about-history.html">here</a>, and <a href="https://etherwave.wordpress.com/2015/04/15/scientists-and-the-history-of-science-the-shapin-view/">here</a>), and I hope that making my own thoughts public will be of interest. It is admittedly a bit inside-baseball, but I think that implicit beliefs about the history and trajectory of science in our larger culture are both more deep-seated and more influential than many realize, and that it's worth talking more about what we actually think about them.</i><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-rocWwZXJThc/VrFmHPEStMI/AAAAAAAACbU/R6hzEqTMOUU/s1600/isolator.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-rocWwZXJThc/VrFmHPEStMI/AAAAAAAACbU/R6hzEqTMOUU/s640/isolator.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hugo Gernsback "Isolator" helmet, designed to allow scientists, writers and tinkerers to concentrate on their work, featured on the cover of a 1925 issue of <i>Science and Invention</i> magazine.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Dear David,<o:p></o:p></div>
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I appreciate you taking the time to write such a lengthy and
thoughtful response. To undertake the task of writing about two 600+ page books
in 2,000 words is to accept a certain level of defeat before you even begin,
and I was painfully aware of how much was being glossed over as I wrote about a
book that was so clearly the result of years painstaking research and careful
thought. One (to me) important sentence in the review that was cut by the
Chronicle's editors was something along the lines of this: “<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Wootton’s beliefs may not be so very
different from those held by most historians of science today</span>.” <o:p></o:p></div>
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I suspect this to be the case, and hence I agree with your closing remark about the need to make distinctions
to clarify exactly "where we agree and where we disagree." To that
end, I thought I'd begin by mentioning the numerous other things that I suspect
we agree about:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>We agree that scientific and medical progress exists and
that this can and should be studied by historians.</li>
<li> We agree that the term "Whig" is showing its age
and has come to mean several different things.</li>
<li> We agree that the history of science and medicine is in a
state of flux, and that no clear consensus seems to exist among practitioners
in the field.</li>
<li> We agree that something which (leaving aside debates about
terminology) may be reasonably called the Scientific Revolution took place between
the 16th and 18th centuries, and that this was a transformative epoch in human
history.</li>
<li> We agree that the innovations from this period bettered the
human condition in many important respects and expanded the scope of human
knowledge.</li>
<li> We agree that there should be more "big" histories
of science, medicine and technology which take a temporally and thematically
ambitious approach, and that more people should read them both inside and
outside the academy.</li>
<li> We agree that “Hobbes was right,” though cute, was perhaps an overly flippant and simplistic way to end <i>Leviathan and the Air Pump</i>.</li>
<li> We agree that <i>The
Invention of Science </i>is an impressive achievement that deserves to be
widely read (in fact I just put it on my class syllabus for next year).</li>
</ul>
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<o:p> </o:p>My core disagreement with <i>Invention</i> centers on the question of where (and how deeply) we draw
the line between between different perspectives on the history of science. <a href="https://twitter.com/matthewcobb/status/650213598137085952">Like Patricia Fara</a>, I believe that the historiographic sections of the book
construct an unnecessarily rigid binary between a host of purported relativists/Strong
Programme advocates/postmodernists on one side and David Wootton on the other. This
tendency toward binaries is apparent throughout your response to my review, where
I found myself being lumped in with Shapin’s “side” and also taken the task for
not pursuing total ideological conformity with Herbert Butterfield even though
I’m “on Butterfield’s side,” while ultimately discovering that I was
unwittingly “on [your] side of the divide, not Shapin’s” all along. This sort
of thing is exactly<i> </i>what I objected
to in the book. It’s possible to share <i>some</i>
views with another thinker and yet to be capable of disagreeing with them in
other respects. This does not make you irrational or confused; it does not mean
you automatically lose an argument.</div>
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Many of the
historiographic portions of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention</i>
seemed to me to show an unwillingness to read supposedly opposing arguments in
good faith. The most jarring example to me was the way that Shapin and Schaffer
were repeatedly trotted out as exemplars of points of view that I rather strongly suspect they
don’t actually adhere to. The most unfair example is on pg. 584 where Shapin is
made to “insist” that “there was no such thing as the Scientific Revolution,”
full stop. Of course, there’s a <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oa0aBTHQ_LIC&lpg=PP1&dq=%E2%80%9Cthere%20was%20no%20such%20thing%20as%20the%20Scientific%20Revolution%2C%E2%80%9D&pg=PA220#v=onepage&q=%E2%80%9Cthere%20was%20no%20such%20thing%20as%20the%20Scientific%20Revolution,%E2%80%9D&f=false">famous second half to this sentence </a>that
completely changes the meaning (and, in my reading at least, basically
announces it to be a witticism rather than a statement to be inveighed against
at great length). <o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">To me it typified the major flaw
of the book’s rhetorical style: a tendency to declare victory in battles which
it was by no means clear to me that the other side was even trying to wage. Hence
why I mentioned <a href="http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n23/steven-shapin/possessed-by-the-idols">Shapin’s line about the reality of medical progress</a>. It
certainly seemed to me that he both acknowledges medical and scientific
progress and considers it open to historical inquiry, but that he took issue
with the particular </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">form</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> of historical
inquiry on display in </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Bad Medicine</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">.</span></div>
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But I don’t know the man and can’t speak for him
(and rather than trying to perform an exegesis on his texts, I think it would
make more sense to just ask him what he thinks). For my own part, I do<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>think that one of the tasks of the
history of science and medicine is to chart the trajectory of progress (however
we choose to define it) in an open-minded and expansive way that tries as far
as possible to avoid writing a history that celebrates the “winners” and elides
the “losers,” even as it acknowledges that some concepts and methods have a
basis in reality and others don’t. In part because being too quick to
distribute laurels and dunce caps can lead us into unjustified and overly hasty
binaries. Not all pre-1800 physicians were astrologers or quacks; not all who
quote Shapin or Butterfield are ardent proponents of the Strong Programme.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>I make no
excuses for mistrusting celebratory narratives in history, and I also maintain
that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention</i> is largely written in
a celebratory mode.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now, as I said
above, I think we actually agree that science has on the whole been a good
thing for the human species. It’s hard to be an historian of medicine and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not </i>acknowledge that, deep down – more
than once I myself have been frustrated by historians who espouse a kneejerk
distrust of the concept of medical progress, yet who surely would prefer the
doctor’s prescription of amoxicillin for their strep throat rather than
bleeding until syncope. Especially in respect to epidemiology and sanitation,
it’s undeniable (to me, at least) that the past three centuries have witnessed
nothing less than a triumphant advance on the past, something that we really
should applaud. We’re literally talking about ideas and methods that have saved
the lives of hundreds of millions of lives by this point. <o:p></o:p></div>
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As you
rightly pointed out, of course, not all aspects of scientific and medical
innovation have been good things. The atom bomb tends to be the perennial
example here. I think that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention</i>
repeatedly avoided another that was a bit closer at hand, namely the slave
trade. As a number of recent studies have shown, the Atlantic slave trade was
closely entangled with the Scientific Revolution, not just in terms of
economics (Boyle and Locke holding share in the Royal Africa Company, etc) but
at a far more visceral level – the testing of poisons on slave’s bodies, the
dissection of slaves, the use of slave labor to produce medical drugs and other
objects of scientific inquiry. This is not incidental to the stories in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention, </i>particularly the passages
dealing with Columbus and voyages of discovery– it’s central to them. </div>
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Perhaps
it’s futile to wonder whether the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions could
have taken place without the advent of Atlantic slavery and the colonial system
that enslaved labor made possible, but I do think that raising the question is
useful, insofar as it reminds us once again that the famous names in books like
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention </i>and Weinberg’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Discovery</i> didn’t exist in an historical
vacuum. The same institutions and many of the same individuals were implicated
in a world outside Europe that depended in concrete ways upon violence, slavery
and yes, religious fanaticism. <o:p></o:p></div>
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From this does it necessarily follow that the individuals
implicated in all of this were wrong on an empirical level? Not at all. And
despite what I wrote above, I also don’t think that the historian’s overarching
goal should be to render moral judgments. But I do think that it is relevant
information that Columbus and many other early modern European mariners were
indeed slave traders, that they did kill people, that they were motivated by
millenarian religious views. I mentioned this not to retroactively condemn them
as bad people, but to point to the issues inherent in any celebratory
historical narrative. To say Columbus was a murderer is not a moral judgment;
it’s just a statement of fact. Certainly, as you note, to argue that Columbus’s
actions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">set in motion</i> a series of
intellectual changes and discoveries is not to say that these later events were
directly guided by Columbus, or that the people involved shared his outlook. <o:p></o:p></div>
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But when <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention</i>
credited the activities of Columbus and Diogo Cão to a new “celebration of
innovation,” it gave me pause. That the book’s readers – many of whom may well
see themselves as contemporary participants in that very same tradition of
innovation – would see this as a good thing seems like a relatively
uncontroversial statement to me. As I said above, in the context of things like
sanitation, the emergence of a new concept of discovery and innovation clearly <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">was</i> a good thing (and note that here I
agree with your reading of the Portuguese “<i>descobrir/descobrimiento</i>” as
representing a new conception of innovation). But when we draw such a wide
circle around this nebulous new culture of “innovation” that it is is made to
include everything from arguments for geocentric orbits to medical statistics
to attempts to establish slave entrepôts at the mouth of the Congo, it seems to
me that the term’s utility breaks down. And that it becomes problematic to
celebrate it. If you want to dismiss that argument as “some sort of political
point” and not grapple with its implications, then I think we really do have a
real disagreement there. <o:p></o:p></div>
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It seems to me that historians of science of
my generation, which is to say people who finished grad school in the 2010s,
are eager to move beyond 1990s style debates about relativism and postmodernism
and combative mentality these debates engendered. For what it’s worth, if I'd
been asked to write a review of a hypothetical new history of science written
by David Bloor, I'd have been at least as critical as I was with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention</i> (almost certainly more, in
fact). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So having said that, what do I actually
think? Like you, I believe that the history of science needs to be more
ambitious and expansive. But the ambitious works in the history of science that
I’ve personally found to be the most compelling don’t appear in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention</i>: <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Measuring-New-World-Enlightenment-Science/dp/0226733556">Neil Safier,</a> <a href="http://carlanappi.com/">Carla Nappi</a>,
<span id="goog_1268488190"></span><a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2650180">Jorge Cañizares<span id="goog_1268488191"></span>,</a> <a href="http://utpress.utexas.edu/index.php/books/barexe">Antonio Barrera-Osorio</a>, <a href="https://www.upress.pitt.edu/BookDetails.aspx?bookId=36612">Matthew Crawford</a>, <a href="http://www.amazon.com/American-Curiosity-Cultures-Colonial-Atlantic/dp/0807856789">Susan Scott Parish,</a>
<a href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/B/bo17031345.html">Abena Dove Osseo-Asare</a>, James Delbourgo, Jennifer Rampling, Elaine Leong, Pamela
Smith (who I noticed in the bibliography but saw little engagement with her
ideas or work), Harold Cook, etc. <o:p></o:p></div>
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That’s because (it seems to me) these scholars write about
science outside of northwestern Europe and/or their work straddles the
traditional divide between medicine and magic, or chemistry and alchemy, or the
female cook’s work and the male apothecary’s work. To me, at least, these works
collectively represent a clear path forward in the historiography of science.
They don’t advocate for a single point of view, and they cover a bewildering
array of geographic regions and languages, but I don’t see that as a negative
in the least. These works (from my reading, at least) don’t argue that the
Scientific Revolution didn’t take place, nor do they mount relativist
arguments. But they don’t seem to fit into <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention</i>,
and I think that’s because they try to expand not just the temporal but the
geographic and social limits of what we mean by scientific discovery and
investigation. <o:p></o:p></div>
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In fact, taken collectively, these works seem to me not just
to broaden the concept of scientific discovery, but to call into question its
utility as a frame of historical analysis. Taking an example from my own
research, because I know it best, let’s follow the historical pathway of what
would be eventually identified as the anti-malarial alkaloid quinine (arguably one
of the most significant scientific discoveries of all time if we use “number of
lives saved” as our litmus). When was quinine discovered?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Was
it…<o:p></o:p></div>
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<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">When indigenous healers in the Peruvian Amazon
first realized that the bark of the cinchona tree was an unusually effective
treatment for fevers?</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">When a new generation of healers, contending
with the introduction of malaria into the New World via the slave trade,
realized that cinchona bark was also effective in the treatment of this
hitherto unknown disease?</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">When a Jesuit priest seeking to convert said
healers realized this too?</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">When the Jesuits carried cinchona bark to
Europe?</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">When Iberian and Italian licensed physicians
began experimenting with preparations of the bark (such as extraction in
alcohol) that more effectively concentrated what we now know to be its active
alkaloid?</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">When an Englishman named Robert Tabor published
the first account of the tincture of the bark’s antimalarial properties in
English?</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">When a Luso-Brazilian surgeon named Bernardino Antonio
Gomes first isolated what we now call quinine in 1811 and named it cinchonin,
but didn’t publish his findings?</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">When two French doctors, working in 1820,
developed a similar method for isolating the alkaloid and named this alkaloid
quinine, the “discovery” of which was recorded in scientific journals?</span></li>
</ul>
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Now, traditional narratives have tended to say that the
final step marks the discovery of quinine. Social historians of medicine have
tended toward the first step. But after thinking carefully about this
trajectory of quinine through history, I’m increasingly convinced that the
concept of discovery doesn’t even have value as a category of analysis here.
Every step arguably marked a discovery, but no one step was decisively
different from the others. Picking the “real” moment of discovery seems, to me
at least, to be necessarily a political judgment, and an arbitrary one at that.
Likewise with policing the boundary of what steps on that chain count as
science and what don’t. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Granted, I’m aware that pg. 567 of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Invention </i>indeed notes that “concepts such as discovery are
problematic,” but I think I disagree with the implication of the conclusion of
that paragraph, that “we cannot understand science without studying the history
of these foundational [and problematic] concepts.” Certainly it’s true that the
notion of discovery has long been central to debates about the history of science,
but doesn’t that actually create an opening to try to attempt something
entirely new by trying to move beyond those debates? <o:p></o:p></div>
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That at least is the direction my own research is leading me
– I fully acknowledge that this isn’t a particularly well articulated or
coherent position, and it’s one that is in flux and will probably change in a
year or two, but perhaps that isn’t necessarily a bad thing. At the very least,
I think that it’s important to acknowledge not only what we already agree on,
but also to be open to changing our minds and to avoid hewing to dogmatic
camps. And with that I’ll simply add that I’m very glad to have had the chance
to have such a substantive dialogue.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-59775218052844003862015-12-17T10:48:00.001-06:002015-12-17T11:12:30.316-06:00The Alchemy of Madness: Understanding a Seventeenth-Century "Brain Scan"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-GQyf7iRXQks/VmUeiy_JPrI/AAAAAAAACYY/N7zwsK00_lI/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bmri%2Bnew.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-GQyf7iRXQks/VmUeiy_JPrI/AAAAAAAACYY/N7zwsK00_lI/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bmri%2Bnew.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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The image above is a detail from a remarkable 1620 engraving I first came across this past summer. It shows a man sliding another figure into what looks like an old-fashioned oven - but instead of smoke, images of the man's thoughts billow out of the oven's top. The "baker" is in fact an apothecary, the "oven" is a distillation apparatus, and the man whose thoughts are boiling out of his head is someone being treated (metaphorically) for madness.</div>
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The full image is even stranger. Two well-dressed figures stand before a wall of shelves stocked with drug jarsbearing labels like <i>Modestie</i>, <i>Raison</i>, and <i>Memoire</i>. One is pouring a potion marked <i>Sagesse</i> (wisdom) into the opened mouth of a seated figure who grips the pourer’s arm uneasily. Below, court jesters wearing fool’s caps tumble into a bedpan. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"Le Médecin guérissant Phantasie," Mattheus Greuter, 1620 (Bibliothèque nationale de France).<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Rf2UjA3zr6Y/VnLrdWMreCI/AAAAAAAACZ0/ZHo2HxBtQnY/s1600/export.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Rf2UjA3zr6Y/VnLrdWMreCI/AAAAAAAACZ0/ZHo2HxBtQnY/s640/export.jpg" width="442" /></a></div>
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To the right of these two— leaning in front of a distillation apparatus, a mortar and pestle, and a lengthy medical receipt pinned to the shelf—is an apothecary pushing a man on a long board into a distillation furnace. Above, the fantasies that had filled this man’s head emerge as the rarified quintessences of distillation: horses, backgammon boards, armor, pantaloons, women, swords, theater masks, flowers, hunting dogs, and, unaccountably, a monkey brandishing a walking stick. </div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-nJUtFmDCODU/VnLr3smHSnI/AAAAAAAACZ8/qW8vy-Tt3aU/s1600/export-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="622" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-nJUtFmDCODU/VnLr3smHSnI/AAAAAAAACZ8/qW8vy-Tt3aU/s640/export-2.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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I think that it's one of the most memorable and mysterious depictions of early modern science and medicine I've ever seen, and I thought I'd try to figure out a bit more about it here. </div>
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The most obvious place to start is with the French caption which accompanies the image. Here's the original French:</div>
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<i>Aprochez vous qu'avez la teste pleine<br />de phantasie, qui vous met en grande peine<br />assurez vous de ce Maistre sçavant,<br />quil voz humeurs seicherat tellemant,<br />dedans ce four, qu'aurez en peu de temps,<br />grand allegeance de beaucoup de torments,<br />aussi serez purge per ses brevages<br />qu'incontinant deviendrez du tout sages.</i></blockquote>
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And here's my attempt to render it in something resembling the couplet rhyme scheme of the original:</div>
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<i>You, come here! Your head is filled<br />With fantasies, that make you ill<br />Of this learned Master, be assured<br />That he will have your humours cured<br />In no time at all, within this furnace—<br />Great allegiance of many torments—<br />So too, he’ll purge with healing potions<br />That can make the foolish cogent. </i></blockquote>
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Even after the cursory research that I did when I first encountered the image, it became clear that this was a pretty popular motif. The basic imagery of a cloud of "phantasies" being distilled from a fool's head by a physician-alchemist appears in at least seven variants that I've been able to find: the French-language version shown above, apparently created by a printer named Mattheus Greuter in 1620; a German-language original from 1596 along with several later copies; a much-altered English versions; and, fascinatingly, a full-color French painting that was seemingly based on the engraving rather than the other way around. </div>
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The earliest iteration of the image would seem to be from a book of emblems created by the Belgian engraver and printer Theodor de Bry (1528-1598) which was published two years before his death. This included a picture of a "Narrendoktor" (Fool Doctor) distilling the madness or folly out of a man's head using an alchemical still, while his associate opens a spigot in a man's stomach to purge him of his foolish humors. Interestingly, this version shows a closer attention to the actual technology of distillation, as it also shows a solid distillate falling to the ground in the form of mice. The Latin caption can be translated to something like "My art can be all knowledge--except wisdom." </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jIitazqOBMk/VnLfkgPkb4I/AAAAAAAACZM/wPGTd_wJeUM/s1600/unnamed.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jIitazqOBMk/VnLfkgPkb4I/AAAAAAAACZM/wPGTd_wJeUM/s640/unnamed.jpg" width="570" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Engraving of the "De Narrendoktor" from Theodor de Bry's <i>Emblemata Secularia </i>(Frankfurt, 1596). </td></tr>
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an accompanying Latin epigram pokes fun at the boasts of Paracelsan physicians, who achieve</div>
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<i>Quod non Hippocrates,<br />no noverat ante Galenas,<br />Arte mea cerebri<br />fatuos incido meatus.</i></blockquote>
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What neither Hippocrates<br />
nor Galen ever attained:<br />
with my art I retrain<br />
the paths of fools’ brains. </blockquote>
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Another German version, from 1648, offered an expanded caption in the voice of one Doctor Wurmbrandt (Wormburner), who implores, “trust me to bring you back to your right mind” when you suffer from “wild imaginings as when... having become quite drunk... you are conscious of nothing, whether you are a man or woman.” His cure is effected by the new chemical arts: a still worn over the head produces a kind of cognitive vapor—bat, dagger, backgammon set, a woman, dueling pistols—that sublimates into the air and leaves the patient freed from psychological distress.<br />
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It’s an image that would have had an obvious metaphorical resonance for early modern Europeans who saw the human body as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeticism#.22As_above.2C_so_below..22">microcosm</a>. If illnesses are indeed caused by fermentations of the blood, poisonsous corpuscles, or malignant humors, then why not move from distilling drugs to practicing medical chemistry directly on the human body itself?<br />
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The English version of this print veered into political territory, presenting the "Fool Doctor" in the midst of a far more elaborate allegorical scene referencing the political upheavals that preceded the English Civil War:<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vtGBbCeOia0/VnLhokQXnOI/AAAAAAAACZY/yQi--WneAiY/s1600/http-%253A%253Awww.bpi1700.org.uk%253Aresearch%253AprintOfTheMonth%253Anovember2006.html%2Bjpg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="574" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vtGBbCeOia0/VnLhokQXnOI/AAAAAAAACZY/yQi--WneAiY/s640/http-%253A%253Awww.bpi1700.org.uk%253Aresearch%253AprintOfTheMonth%253Anovember2006.html%2Bjpg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://www.bpi1700.org.uk/research/printOfTheMonth/november2006.html#fnLink01">According</a> to the British Printed Images to 1700 project, this version was refigured as "a satire of universal folly in which a tripartite division of the realm into <i>Cuntry, Citty & the Court</i> is symbolised, respectively, by rude '<i>Rusticall' </i>being purged by the doctor on the close-stool, '<i>spruce master Cittyzsinne'</i> standing behind the Doctor, and the <i>Gallant</i> (i.e courtier) whose head is just entering the subliming furnace." The print also appears to be demonstrating a new wariness about female sexuality and the perceived masculinity of women in positions of power, as the caption adjoining the female figure in the print reads:<br />
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<i>Once (faire) I knew the tongues Phlebotomie<br />Had powre to Cure your Sexes Maladie<br />But now youre manly humors boile so high<br />That you must in the Gallants Furnace lye.</i></blockquote>
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It reminds me a lot of the metaphysical poetry of John Donne, with its complex medical and alchemical references ("the tongues Phlebotomie" is a reference to the common practice of medical blood-letting or phlebotomy, but seems to be suggesting that previous generations of women could be cured by speech, whereas now, because of their "manly humors," they required new alchemical technologies like "the Gallants Furnace").<br />
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In short, variants on this image seem to have circulated very widely indeed and fulfilled different functions of social commentary and satire in doing so, as evidenced by the fact that the original print also inspired at least one painting that <a href="http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2010x044x002/HSMx2010x044x002x0121.pdf">may</a> in fact have <i>advertised </i>an apothecary's services:<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-e9GwkbfMfGM/VnLj6GW3FgI/AAAAAAAACZk/2Fp7i9XjiJA/s1600/m016186_0000519_p.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="460" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-e9GwkbfMfGM/VnLj6GW3FgI/AAAAAAAACZk/2Fp7i9XjiJA/s640/m016186_0000519_p.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Anonymous painting in the Musée Rolin, Autun, France, mid to late 17th century.</td></tr>
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I'm still trying to get to the bottom of this series of interrelated images, but I suspect that their popularity had to do with an emerging awareness of what we would now call mental illness in seventeenth-century Europe. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/19588825/Drugs_and_Transcultural_Exchanges_in_the_Portuguese_Colonial_World_Working_Paper_">As new drugs and therapies began to reach Europe via colonial networks</a> that brought physicians into contact with non-European healing traditions, some began to wonder if the new medical practices of the seventeenth century could cure madness or folly in the same way that cinchona bark could cure fevers.<br />
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Natural philosophers like Robert Boyle also became interested in the possibility of what we would call psychedelics or smart drugs: in Boyle's <a href="http://theappendix.net/issues/2014/7/perchance-to-dream-science-and-the-future">remarkable list of "desiderata" for future inventions</a>, he included "Potent Druggs to alter or Exalt Imagination, Waking, Memory, and other functions" as well as "Freedom from Necessity of much Sleeping exemplify’d by the Operations of Tea and what happens in Mad-Men." Likewise, when <a href="https://aeon.co/essays/how-yesterday-s-drugs-become-tomorrow-s-medicines">Robert Hooke experimented with cannabis</a> in 1689, he concluded that it might "be of considerable Use for Lunaticks."<br />
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In short, these images point to an emerging interest in the brain and in the scientific alteration of mental states. When I first shared the French version of the image <a href="https://twitter.com/ResObscura/status/578750916142067712">on Twitter,</a> several people remarked that it seemed almost to be a seventeenth-century prefiguration of an fMRI. And indeed, I believe that in some ways they were - that these images were part of an emerging interest in cognition and mental illness that, in its convergence with alchemy, points the way toward a new approach to understanding the brain as a material structure that can be studied and manipulated in the same way that a chemist induces chemical reactions. </div>
Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-51359570444102575702015-12-05T01:33:00.000-06:002015-12-05T18:52:26.979-06:00Why Did Seventeenth-Century Europeans Eat Mummies?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Brazilian BBQ from Theodor de Bry, <i>America Tertiae Pars</i> (1592).</td></tr>
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In a <a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2012/12/early-modern-drugs-and-medicinal.html">previous post</a>, I touched on the phenomenon of "cannibal medicine" in early modern Europe. It turns out that it was surprisingly common for medical patients in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to be prescribed drugs that contained human remains. These included everything from powdered human skull to more byzantine preparations like Oswald Croll's infamous 1608 remedy which invites the reader to "take the fresh corpse of a redhaired, uninjured, unblemished man," and "leave it one day and one night in the light of the sun and the moon, then cut into strips."<br />
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Although historians like Richard Sugg have already <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rKHhCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false">written perceptively</a> about medical cannibalism, the special role played by mummies in this story has always seemed intriguing and rather under explored to me. I spoke a bit about this at Yale's History of Medicine colloquium last month, and thought I'd adapt some of my thoughts into a post.<br />
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First off, it's worth stressing that, historically speaking, there is nothing particularly bizarre about eating people. Perusing one of my favorite early modern drug manuals, John Jacob Berlu's <i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zUtfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA62&dq=treasury+of+drugs+unlock'd&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiclKuK7MPJAhUM8CYKHcR2BscQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q&f=false">The Treasury of Drugs Unlock'd</a> </i>(London, 1690) makes it plain that a certain form of cannibalism was widely tolerated in Europe. Berlu's guide to drugs is not at all exotic or show off-y - on the contrary, it's a practical handbook aimed at working drugs merchants who needed to know basic facts about the wares they sold. Most of its entries involve relatively prosaic substances like tamarind, sassafras, cinnamon and elk antlers. But there are a few entries, like the one for "Cranium Humanum" shown below, which stand out to a modern eye:<br />
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Remember, this is a practical guide to <i>consumable drugs</i>. There's no trace of Swiftian satire or exoticizing hyperbole here. Berlu really does appear to be recommending, in a matter-of-fact way, that drug merchants should rove Ireland looking for moss-covered criminal's skulls, then sell them to apothecaries so they can be ground into powder and drunk by sick English people. </div>
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Thus it shouldn't necessarily surprise us to find Egyptian mummies also appearing in lists of popular drugs and medical guides in the seventeenth century. As I mentioned in a <a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2010/11/compleat-history-of-druggs.html">previous post,</a> Pierre Pomet, the apothecary of King Louis XIV, wrote extensively about the medical virtues of <i>la mumie, </i>even commissioning a detailed and not exactly accurate engraving of how he imagined mummies were prepared for burial:</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2NdKr0OfFcY/VmJnxa7j97I/AAAAAAAACXA/paNbeot5MHU/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bmummies.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="368" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2NdKr0OfFcY/VmJnxa7j97I/AAAAAAAACXA/paNbeot5MHU/s640/res%2Bobscura%2Bmummies.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Engraving of mummies from the English translation of Pomet's drug manual (Pierre Pomet, <i>A Compleat History of Druggs </i>published in London, 1712). </td></tr>
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Pomet, like Berlu, seems completely at home with the idea of eating mummy, and his main advice to the reader involves tips on how to avoid getting cheated by unscrupulous mummy merchants:</div>
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As I am not able to stop the Abuses committed by those who sell this Commodity, I shall only advise such as buy, to chuse what is of a fine shining Black, not full of Bones or Dirt, of a good Smell... This is reckoned proper for Contusions and to hinder Blood from coagulating in the Body; it is also given in Epilepsies, Vertigoes, and Palsies. The Dose is two Drams in Powder.</blockquote>
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Pomet's discussion of eating mummy leads into a larger digression on various other forms of medical cannibalism such as "human Fat or Grease, which is brought us from several Parts, but, as every Body knows in Paris, the public Executioner sells it to those that want it." He even takes a moment to allude to the same moss-covered Irish skulls that Berlu had mentioned: </div>
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The English druggists, especially those of London, sell the heads or skulls of the dead... The English Druggists generally bring these Heads from Ireland, where they frequently let the Bodies of Criminals hang n the Gibbets til they fall to Pieces. You may see in the Druggists Shops of London, some of these Heads entirely covere'd with Moss.</blockquote>
On the other hand, it's hard not to think that there'd be something distinctive about eating an Egyptian mummy rather than just some anonymous unburied criminal's skull (which, given the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_General_Crisis">enormous amount of violence</a> in the seventeenth century, would've been pretty easy to find). After all, we're talking about consuming human remains which are thousands of years old. It's not as if seventeenth century Europeans weren't aware of the rarity and age of what they were dealing with - on the contrary, many of them thought that these remains were far older. Herodotus, the ur-authority on Egyptian history for most Renaissance scholars, had claimed that the Egyptian priests possessed documents demonstrating an unbroken line of kingship stretching back 11,340 years.<br />
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In other words, from the perspective of a seventeenth-century European, the Egyptian mummies being sold by apothecaries could conceivably have been <i>thirteen thousand years old</i>.<br />
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I think it's reasonable, then, to conjecture that the early modern people who prescribed and consumed mummies valued them partially because of their reputed origins in a distant, Biblical antiquity. And, connected to this, their association with a great and mysterious civilization, a non-Christian society that rivaled any European empire.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-i-A3itvRz9w/VmKSZbTXc6I/AAAAAAAACXc/I6KwcqIyeWA/s1600/http-%253A4.bp.blogspot.com%253A-FXSmgDchcww%253AVZFPyTcEf4I%253AAAAAAAAAAQc%253AeoqK853QKvA%253As1600%253AKircher-Egyptian%25252Blabyrinth.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-i-A3itvRz9w/VmKSZbTXc6I/AAAAAAAACXc/I6KwcqIyeWA/s640/http-%253A4.bp.blogspot.com%253A-FXSmgDchcww%253AVZFPyTcEf4I%253AAAAAAAAAAQc%253AeoqK853QKvA%253As1600%253AKircher-Egyptian%25252Blabyrinth.jpg" width="636" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Diagram of an Ancient Egyptian labyrinth imagined by the Jesuit polymath Athanasius Kircher in his <i>Oedipus Aegyptiacus</i> [<i>Egyptian Oedipus</i>] (Rome, 1653).</td></tr>
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Talking to the Peruvianist <a href="http://www.christopherheaney.net/">Christopher Heaney</a> about this sort of thing led us to wonder whether any early modern doctors believed that <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/ist/?next=/travel/fascinating-afterlife-perus-mummies-180956319/">Andean Inca mummies</a> shared the same medical virtues as Egyptian ones. It's still an open question, this being a fairly new line of research. But it does seem that at least some physicians and apothecaries did believe that Inca mummies were medically powerful in the same manner. In 1720, for instance, Johann Crüger’s <i>De Mundi Creatione</i> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kjxGAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false">alluded</a> to the drug "mumia" as having a potential origin in Peru. Crüger’s Latin text is intentionally obscure (since he was basically an alchemist) but nonetheless makes the identification plain: “Wine,” he writes, “has the form of a vitriolic sulphur, not being a type of immature balsam of the Moon; and from thence [it can be found] in the fragrant white balsams of the liquid resins of Egyptian, Peruvian, or Copaici [?] mummies, whether an immature balsam, or a specific oil of the Moon.”</div>
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While researching this topic, I stumbled across a wonderfully strange piece of writing by the seventeenth-century physician Thomas Browne: his <a href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/misctracts/mummies.html">"Fragment on Mummies."</a> I think Virginia Woolf was spot on when she compared reading Browne to wandering through a cabinet of curiosities - his style is baroque, intricate and mysterious in a way that I find fascinating. It would seem that Browne was opposed to the fashion for such "cannibal mixtures," but he couldn't deny its fascination:<br />
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That mummy is medicinal, the Arabian Doctor <i>Haly</i> delivereth and divers confirm; but of the particular uses thereof, there is much discrepancy of opinion. While Hofmannus prescribes the same to epileptics, Johan de Muralto commends the use thereof to gouty persons; Bacon likewise extols it as a stiptic: and Junkenius considers it of efficacy to resolve coagulated blood. Meanwhile, we hardly applaud Francis the First, of France, who always carried Mummia with him as a panacea against all disorders; and were the efficacy thereof more clearly made out, scarce conceive the use thereof allowable in physic, exceeding the barbarities of Cambyses, and turning old heroes unto unworthy potions.</blockquote>
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Shall Egypt lend out her ancients unto chirurgeons and apothecaries, and Cheops and Psammiticus be weighed unto us for drugs? Shall we eat of Chamnes and Amosis in electuaries and pills, and be cured by cannibal mixtures? Surely such diet is dismal vampirism; and exceeds in horror the black banquet of Domitian, not to be paralleled except in those Arabian feasts, wherein Ghoules feed horribly.</blockquote>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-85601834862771612502014-10-24T11:03:00.000-05:002017-11-12T13:31:31.121-06:00Introducing the Res Obscura Newsletter<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-CrIcpIVbaSo/VEp3x2pLMGI/AAAAAAAACLM/IaVjTLJntwY/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bweek%2B1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-CrIcpIVbaSo/VEp3x2pLMGI/AAAAAAAACLM/IaVjTLJntwY/s1600/res%2Bobscura%2Bweek%2B1.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Hand-colored daguerrotype, c. 1850, "Three Lively Women."</i></td></tr>
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<div>
After putting <i>Res Obscura </i>on hiatus for over a year so I could work on <i><a href="http://theappendix.net/">The Appendix</a>, </i>I've decided to resurrect it as an email newsletter and occasional blog. You can sign up for the weekly newsletter <a href="http://tinyletter.com/resobscura">over here</a>, and I'll also be posting weekly updates here which are gleaned from the newsletter's collection of links to interesting historical articles and archives. </div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><a href="http://mad.hypotheses.org/37">Preventing “Monkey Business”: Fettered Apes in the Middle Ages.</a> "A monkey destroyed a charter at the court of Robert, Duke of Burgundy in the year 1288. The chancery of the Duke had to copy some original letters of his ancestor Eudes, dated from the beginning of the 12th century, because Robert’s monkey had torn the documents." <em>[Medieval Animal Data Network]</em></li>
<li><a href="http://rarecooking.wordpress.com/2014/09/12/italian-cheese/">Cooking an eighteenth-century recipe for "Italian Cheese."</a> <em>[Cooking in the Archives]</em></li>
<li><a href="http://pipeline.corante.com/archives/2014/09/15/weirdly_tramadol_is_not_a_natural_product_after_all.php">Tramadol is fed to cattle in Cameroon to such an extent that it has soaked into root systems.</a> "The farmers apparently take the drug themselves, at pretty high dosages, saying that it allows them to work without getting tired." <em>[Corante]</em></li>
<li><a href="http://aeon.co/magazine/psychology/the-warped-world-of-1950s-marriage-counselling/">Rebecca Onion on marriage advice before feminism.</a> "The column’s very existence in a magazine for educated women sends a powerful message. Men’s magazines – the closest parallels to the women’s service titles – don’t tend to write about marital troubles, preferring to focus on sex." [<em>Aeon]</em></li>
<li><a href="http://theappendix.net/issues/2014/7/the-passing-of-the-indians-behind-glass">"It sounded like we were an ancient people and that we didn’t exist anymore.”</a> Francie Diep on how museum dioramas of American Indians can institutionalize a perception of indigenous cultures as frozen in time and defunct. <em>[The Appendix]</em></li>
<li><a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur">Over one hundred high resolution eighteenth-century images of costumes and fashions</a> created by Jacques Grasset de Saint-Sauveur. <em>[Wikimedia Commons</em>]</li>
<li><a href="https://www.jacobinmag.com/2014/09/the-slavers-objectivity/">The Slaver’s Objectivity.</a> "<em>The Economist</em>’s controversial review of Edward Baptist’s new book ends on a feverish crescendo of denial about the fundamentals of American slavery: that slaves were slaves and masters, masters — with all the brutality, coercion, and punishment that relationship entails. Accordingly, the publication has retracted the piece and issued an apology, but the loss of credibility will probably be lasting. The irony is that their indictment of Baptist’s exhaustive book decries its lack of objectivity. To this end, tucked away in the last paragraphs of the review is a surprising and somewhat obscure reference to Hugh Thomas’s 1997 book, <em>The Slave Trade.</em>" <em>[Jacobin</em>]</li>
<li><a href="http://notchesblog.com/2014/09/18/sexual-curiosities-aphrodisiacs-in-early-modern-england/">Sexual Curiosities?: Aphrodisiacs in Early Modern England.</a> "Jacques Ferrand’s 1610 book on erotic melancholy argued that ‘salt things doe cause a kind of Itching or Tickling in those parts that serve for Generation.'" [<em>Notches</em>]</li>
<li><div>
<a href="http://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2014/09/17/extreme-extreme/">The Literature of Laughing Gas</a>. A short essay I wrote for <em>The Paris Review </em>about Wi<span style="color: #555555; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px;">lli</span>am James' de<span style="color: #555555; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px;">lightfully unhinged nitrous oxide writings:</span> </div>
<blockquote>
By George, nothing but othing!<br />
That sounds like nonsense, but it’s pure <em>on</em>sense!<br />
Thought much deeper than speech … !<br />
Medical school; divinity school, <em>school</em>! SCHOOL! </blockquote>
</li>
<li> <a href="http://nymag.com/thecut/2014/09/describing-a-vagina-the-16th-century-way.html">What the 17th Century Can Teach Us About Vaginas</a> by <a href="https://twitter.com/Millicentsomer">Lili Loofbourow</a>. "Early modern England saw conception as more drawing-room drama than fantasy epic; basically, sperm are shy and retiring and likely to glumly depart unless they’re actively made to feel at home." <em>[The Cut]</em></li>
<li><a href="http://theappendix.net/issues/2014/7/the-passing-of-the-indians-behind-glass">The Passing of the Indians Behind Glass.</a> "Shannon Martin, who is also Anishinabe, explains how she felt as a kid, when she saw American Indian exhibits in natural history museums: “It sounded like we were an ancient people and that we didn’t exist anymore.” [The Appendix]</li>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-56650485158153835212013-07-29T23:07:00.001-05:002018-07-23T12:47:09.040-05:00"Why Does 'S' Look Like 'F'?": A Beginner's Guide to Reading Early Modern Texts <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ltN4EbglNOE/UfcqQQkHzDI/AAAAAAAABRw/m5CbO77nXhI/s1600/res+paleography+circle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ltN4EbglNOE/UfcqQQkHzDI/AAAAAAAABRw/m5CbO77nXhI/s640/res+paleography+circle.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
Last month, I came across a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_9dNAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false">recently digitized book</a> from 1680 called <i>The School of Venus</i>. After browsing it for a few moments, I realized I'd stumbled onto something truly interesting. It was a sex manual, and a rather free-spirited one at that, as the frontispiece engraving suggests:<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-FoJFAB5vRXA/UfcrkT3mFbI/AAAAAAAABR8/B51o7apvjRA/s1600/venus2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-FoJFAB5vRXA/UfcrkT3mFbI/AAAAAAAABR8/B51o7apvjRA/s640/venus2.jpg" width="483" /></a></div>
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It occurred to me that this was the sort of thing that would appeal to people outside of my specialist field of early modern history, and I began writing a <a href="http://theappendix.net/blog/2013/6/this-misterie-of-fucking-a-sex-manual-from-1680">blog post about it</a> for the journal I co-edit, <i><a href="http://theappendix.net/">The Appendix</a></i>. Reading over my draft, my co-editor <a href="http://www.christopherheaney.net/journal/">Chris</a> brought up something that I'd taken for granted: like any seventeenth-century book, the text employed what's called the 'long' or 'descending' S.<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Km_jPlyUR8w/UfcsUuHVvMI/AAAAAAAABSI/1xSobQmWjs4/s1600/Long-s-US-Bill-of-Rights.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="228" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Km_jPlyUR8w/UfcsUuHVvMI/AAAAAAAABSI/1xSobQmWjs4/s320/Long-s-US-Bill-of-Rights.jpg" width="320" /></a>"If this has the reach I think it might," he said, "you need to explain that." I initially thought the suggestion was slightly condescending to my readers: doesn't everyone know about the old-timey S? Its right there in the first line of the Bill of Rights, after all.<br />
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Then I snapped out of it and realized that I was falling into the myopia typical of anyone who spends a long time in a specialist field. Like a biologist assuming that laypeople would know what hemoglobin is, I was forgetting that not everyone spends their days reading early modern texts. I put in an explanation of the S/F distinction, and the post got picked up by <i><a href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_vault/2013/06/26/early_sex_manual_the_school_of_venus_published_in_1680.html">Slate</a></i> and <i><a href="http://jezebel.com/this-misterie-of-fucking-a-sex-manual-from-1680-575810241">Jezebel</a></i> - where a significant proportion of the comments were about how hard it was to read the old-fashioned writing.<br />
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So I write today to give an accessible overview of how to read books and manuscripts from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period">early modern era</a> - what scholars call the period spanning the early Renaissance to the French, American and Industrial Revolutions. To tackle the S first: the long S dates back to the old Roman cursive handwriting, and survived as an artifact in the earliest printed book fonts, which were modeled on various medieval handwriting forms. The key thing to understand about the long S is that it occurs only in the middle of words, never at the beginning or end. Thus the title of <i>School of Venus</i> would not feature a long S in either its first or final letters, but words like 'Castle' or 'Lost' would appear as 'Caſtle' and 'Loſt.'<br />
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So far so good. Things get trickier, however, when we try to read the earliest books printed in English, which typically featured variants of the German <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackletter">blackletter</a> font. Here's a two page spread from one of the earliest English medical texts, Thomas Elyot's <i><a href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t4gm84w94;view=1up;seq=9">The Castell of Helth</a> </i>(1536):<br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6W_PGgCkEUw/UfcvOiO5VeI/AAAAAAAABSY/2mr6kQmgtAo/s1600/paleography2castel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="476" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6W_PGgCkEUw/UfcvOiO5VeI/AAAAAAAABSY/2mr6kQmgtAo/s640/paleography2castel.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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A variant of the long S is in full effect here, but so are a number of other features that look unusual to modern readers: capital letters like 'T' or 'H' take elaborate forms, and lowercase 'd' and 'r' retain the look of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule">Carolingian miniscule</a> or Gothic blacklister, the handwritings of choice of medieval monks. The top of the second page is intended to help with diagnosing sexual trouble, and reads: </div>
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The genitories Heares [i.e. hairs] none or fewe<br />
colde and drye { Littel apetite or none to lechery </blockquote>
And so forth. I remember being a bit taken aback the first few times I tried to read books in this font, but it ends up registering in the brain as just that: a different font, but the same alphabet. Reading early modern manuscripts (the practice of which is called 'paleography') can be a different matter, however. To start us off easy, here's a lovely script from the late 17th century written by a clerk or secretary at the Royal Society of London:<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ubSlltAr7Zg/Ufc0ye5iQ0I/AAAAAAAABSo/IhSnk5qwkrY/s1600/paleography3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="356" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ubSlltAr7Zg/Ufc0ye5iQ0I/AAAAAAAABSo/IhSnk5qwkrY/s640/paleography3.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><i>"Mr Hawksbee shewed the following Experiment, viz: Placing two small Birds in two Glasses, & exhausting the Air from one, & injecting it into the other, that Bird which was plac'd in the Glass from which the Air was withdrawn, died in about 30 seconds of time, after his beginning to take away the Air. The other Bird which remain'd in the Glass, whereinto, by the same Operation, the Air was convey'd, was affected with Convulsions, but not unto Death." (Via the Royal Society)</i></td></tr>
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The script and language here is not all that different from modern English. The key differences are in the punctuation (early modern English, like modern German, tended to capitalize proper nouns), and also in certain contractions which are unused today, like "convey'd." As a side note, I kept this snippet on hand because it contains a rare reference to an impostor named George Psalmanazar, who I just <a href="http://www.academia.edu/4042982/No_Man_Is_an_Island_Early_Modern_Globalization_Knowledge_Networks_and_George_Psalmanazars_Formosa">published an article about</a>. </div>
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Moving backwards in time to an early 17th century hand, copying a famous poem by the poet John Donne, we find things a little more unfamiliar:</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A contemporary copy of Donne's great poem <a href="http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/donne/triplefool.htm">"The Triple Fool."</a> Via the Huntington Library, San Marino, CA.</td></tr>
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The copyist's 'E's are typical of his period in that they resembled reversed '3's, and his uppercase 'I' looks like an F or J. The most difficult difference in this script - or at least the one that tripped me the most when I was learning it - is the variation in the 'S' shapes. In the second line, the Donne scribe writes "saying soe" using a form with a looping tail, but in "fools," he uses something like a modern cursive lowercase s. Finally, we find in the last line a very common 17th century abbreviation: 'yt' for 'that.' What appears to be a 'y' here is actually the descendant of the obsolete <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorn_(letter)">Old English letter thorn</a> (<span style="background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: xx-small; line-height: 16px;">Þ</span>), which also appears in the classic construction "Ye Olde Shoppe." (The 'Ye' would actually have been pronounced like 'the'). You can see Donne using 'Ye' there in the middle: "Then as the Earths inward narrowe lanes..." As an interesting note, this draft of the poem differs from the final version - in the print edition, the writer substituted 'crooked' for 'narrowe.'</div>
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Now lets move on to some truly difficult paleography. This is a photograph I took of a book at the John Carter Brown Library called <i>The Sea Surgeon, or the Guinea-Mans Vade Mecum </i>(1729). The inside flaps of this copy of the book feature some fascinating notes by an actual practicing marine surgeon who was trying out various cures for scurvy, plague and fevers found in the book. He used a handwriting that was marked by his profession, featuring a number of abbreviations that it took me some time to puzzle out. I'd say this is fairly advanced-level paleography - although I should add that compared to my colleagues who work on things like sixteenth-century French or Scottish witchcraft trials, reading this is absolute child's play. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Inscriptions in the John Carter Brown Library's copy of John Aubrey's <i>The Sea Surgeon</i> (1729).</td></tr>
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At upper right, we find the heading <u>"Rubarb given wt. ye Bark</u>," which is to say "Rhubarb given with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuit's_bark">[Peruvian] Bark</a>." (Known primarily to modern eaters for its famed pie-partnership with strawberries, rhubarb was actually a highly prized and expensive medicine in this period.) Below the heading we find a list of ingredients supplied to a sick sailor, beginning with the still-familiar "Rx" prescription symbol: "[Prescription] of Bark Peru[viana] Powder lix [59] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dram_(unit)">drams</a>." The surgeon then lists "Salt of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemisia_absinthium">Wormwood</a>, Salt of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaury">Centaury</a>, Salt of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnicus">Carduus Benedict[us]</a>, of Each Half a Dram."</div>
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Of the ingredients of this witches brew, the most familiar to modern readers is probably wormwood, the <a href="http://www.erowid.org/plants/wormwood/wormwood_article1.shtml">possibly intoxicating</a> herb which makes absinthe so infamous. There's a good amount of shorthand being used here, of the sort that a doctor or apothecary would use in jotting notes to others in the field. But in fact this is a fairly easy to read example of how early modern apothecaries wrote - I've seen much, much worse, and there are countless pages of documents which even after five years of training, I'm still unable to read. </div>
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With practice and patience, though, virtually <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/04/0425_050425_papyrus.html">anything is readable</a>. </div>
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At any rate, I hope this brief and idiosyncratic overview to reading early modern texts has been helpful, and above all, I hope it spurs some further interest in the fascinating works out there, waiting for readers. Not everything from the 17th and 18th centuries is as immediately engaging as <i>The School of Venus</i>, but there are a lot of <a href="http://dp.la/">untapped riches out there</a>. </div>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-72387190267295330992012-12-27T17:27:00.001-06:002019-11-26T13:06:40.696-06:00Early Modern Drugs and Medicinal Cannibalism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-A5ycwXgy8vM/UNzQ3hwBGZI/AAAAAAAABKc/Js1NL2z9_pM/s1600/Albarello_MUMIA_18Jh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-A5ycwXgy8vM/UNzQ3hwBGZI/AAAAAAAABKc/Js1NL2z9_pM/s640/Albarello_MUMIA_18Jh.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>An eighteenth-century German jar for medicinal mummy. Via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albarello_MUMIA_18Jh.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>.</i></td></tr>
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I spent much of the past year in Lisbon, Portugal, researching the development of the global trade in medicinal drugs during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. While there, I was struck by how extraordinarily different Portuguese pharmacies appeared from their United States counterparts. Some bore definite similarities to the type of American pharmacies I grew up regarding as normal: modern-looking edifices bathed in fluorescent light and painted a sterile white designed to set off the colorful packaging of the drugs for sale. Others, however, (like the <a href="http://www.farmaciaandrade.pt/?a-farmacia&cod=122" target="_blank">Farmácia Andrade</a>, which I walked by nearly every day) looked more like this well-preserved pharmacy in Stockholm:<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-b5D7kZAt16g/UNzGnkvKsbI/AAAAAAAABI4/9H7yRrAHmQw/s1600/Apoteket_Storken.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="420" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-b5D7kZAt16g/UNzGnkvKsbI/AAAAAAAABI4/9H7yRrAHmQw/s640/Apoteket_Storken.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>The Apoteket Storken (Stork Pharmacy) in Stockholm, Sweden, 2009. Via Wikimedia Commons.</i></td></tr>
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The same basic design (ceramic jars of herbs, minerals and animal products lined on wooden shelves along with the occasional specimen of exotica) can be seen in images from the eighteenth and seventeenth centuries:<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-KHFQS973VGI/UNzHAbOqI5I/AAAAAAAABJI/Ab8qVFGEixA/s1600/apothecary_1695_curiosa_aucta.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="480" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-KHFQS973VGI/UNzHAbOqI5I/AAAAAAAABJI/Ab8qVFGEixA/s640/apothecary_1695_curiosa_aucta.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>An apothecary shop as depicted in Wolfgang Helmhard Hohberg, </i>Georgica curiosa aucta<i> (Nuremberg: 1697).</i></td></tr>
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Yet what did these jars actually contain? Trying to actually learn the craft of early modern pharmacy is a difficult process: the apothecary was a member of a guild who held closely-guarded secrets, and apothecary manuals were frequently written in Latin and employed a host of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecaries'_system" target="_blank">specialist symbols</a> and words like "drachm" and "scruple."<br />
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To make matters even more difficult, early modern drug lore predated the widespread adoption of Linnaean classification, so a plant called "Dragon's blood" in Italian might be totally different from a plant with the same name in English. What emerges when one overcomes these various obstacles and actually gets to the bottom of what was being prescribed, however, is a fascinating picture. It turns out early modern Europeans were prescribing some very familiar items – things found in herb teas sold in grocery stores today, like chamomile, fennel, licorice, and cardamom – alongside some utterly bizarre ones, like powdered crab's eyes, Egyptian mummies, and human skull, or "<a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2010/07/drug-merchant-in-seventeenth-century.html">cranium humanum.</a>"<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-EnnNluCSLug/UNzHruzHftI/AAAAAAAABJQ/8z272ARNnlQ/s1600/Albarelli_Axung_Hominis_(1).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="496" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-EnnNluCSLug/UNzHruzHftI/AAAAAAAABJQ/8z272ARNnlQ/s640/Albarelli_Axung_Hominis_(1).jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Late 17th or early 18th century medicine jars that once contained human fat – one of several gruesome "cannibal medicine" remedies now forgotten by all except collectors of antique jars and historians of early modern medicine.</i></td></tr>
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In the sister post to this one, on <a href="https://theappendix.net/blog" target="_blank"><i>The Appendix's </i>blog</a>, I listed a few intriguing medical recipes for things like "Snaill water" that I found in archives in Portugal and Philadelphia – you can read them <a href="http://theappendix.net/posts/2012/12/ravens-scull--a-handfull-of-fennel-early-modern-drug-recipes" target="_blank">here</a>. But while I was revisiting these sources today, I was struck by the degree to which they take for granted something that I suspect most people in the contemporary world would find revolting: the consumption of human bodies as medicinal drugs.<br />
<br />
As the picture above hints, substances like human fat or powdered mummy were once so common that hundreds or perhaps even thousands of antique ceramic jars purpose-built to contain them still exist in antique shops, museums and private collections. This is no secret, but it remains more or less the domain of specialists in early modern history and (judging by the reactions of friends and dinner guests I have broached the subject with!) appears to not be widely known to the general public.<br />
<br />
One good popular resource on the subject is this <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/The-Gruesome-History-of-Eating-Corpses-as-Medicine.html" target="_blank">May 2012 Smithsonian article by Maria Dolan</a>, which quotes the authors of two recent academic works on the subject: <a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0230110274/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0230110274" target="_blank">Louise Noble's <i>Medicinal Cannibalism in Early Modern Literature and Culture</i></a> and Richard Sugg's<i> <a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415674174/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415674174">Mummies, Cannibals and Vampires: The History of Corpse Medicine from the Renaissance to the Victorians</a>. </i>As the <i>Smithsonian </i>article notes, it was a relatively common sight in early modern France and Germany to witness relatives of sick people collecting blood from recently executed criminals to use in medical preparations:<br />
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
For those who preferred their blood cooked, a 1679 recipe from a Franciscan apothecary describes how to make it into marmalade... [T]hese medicines may have been incidentally helpful—even though they worked by magical thinking, one more clumsy search for answers to the question of how to treat ailments at a time when even the circulation of blood was not yet understood. However, consuming human remains fit with the leading medical theories of the day. “It emerged from homeopathic ideas,” says Noble. “It’s 'like cures like.' So you eat ground-up skull for pains in the head.” Or drink blood for diseases of the blood. </blockquote>
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What is striking to me about such stories is not that merely that they occured – there are lots of similar oddities in the history of science and medicine – but that they appear to have been so strikingly <i>commonplace</i>.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-7IBIlttc5Rk/UNzROubpvNI/AAAAAAAABKk/lcvMi1cNQxU/s1600/Monrava+y+Roca,+Breve+curso+de+nueva+cirugia,+1728,+mumia.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-7IBIlttc5Rk/UNzROubpvNI/AAAAAAAABKk/lcvMi1cNQxU/s640/Monrava+y+Roca,+Breve+curso+de+nueva+cirugia,+1728,+mumia.png" width="505" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Monrava y Roca, </i>Breve curso de nueva cirurgia<i>, (Lisbon, 1728). An interesting engraving illustrating a surgeon's medicine chest containing "mumia" and "human meat."</i></td></tr>
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In my own research I've probably come across dozens of references to eating human remains at this point, and they're all delivered in a matter-of-fact, almost laconic tone. These accounts are especially jarring because they are from precisely the era – the 16th through 18th centuries – when Europeans were virtually obsessed with the <a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2011/04/for-they-are-very-expert-and-skillful.html?utm_source=BP_recent">supposed cruelties of cannibalism in a New World that was thought to be ruled by Satan.</a> It seems to me that Montaigne was (characteristically) distinctive in noting this irony, in his <a href="http://faculty.smu.edu/rkemper/anth_4309-6309/montaigne-Of_Cannibals.html">brilliant essay "On Cannibals"</a>:<br />
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
I am not sorry that we notice the barbarous horror of such acts [of cannibalism by indigenous Americans], but I am heartily sorry that, judging their faults rightly, we should be so blind to our own. I think there is more barbarity in eating a man alive than in eating him dead; and in tearing by tortures and the rack a body still full of feeling, in roasting a man bit by bit, in having him bitten and mangled by dogs and swine (as we have not only read but seen within fresh memory, not among ancient enemies, but among neighbors and fellow citizens, and what is worse, on the pretext of piety and religion), than in roasting and eating him after he is dead.</blockquote>
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Even here, though, Montaigne was equating New World cannibalism with the cruelty of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> – which involved extensive torture of civilians and atrocities like the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre – and not with the <i>medicinal</i> cannibalism that was going on all around him. Strangely, even the shrewd Montaigne seems to miss the obvious equivalences to be drawn between ritualistic cannibalism of the sort practiced in Mesoamerica and early modern European's consumption of human bodies as part of their medical beliefs, which were intimately tied up with religion.<br />
<br />
In such discussions, the specificity of what medicinal cannibalism entailed often gets lost. So I wanted to close by transcribing some "recipes" for early modern medicinal drug preparations that include humans. The following is from a 1676 manuscript called "Viridiarum Regale" that I consulted at the Van Pelt Library, University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia. I'd like to thank the <a href="http://www.pachs.net/">Philadelphia Area Center for the History of Science</a> and the Rare Books staff at the Van Pelt for making this research possible. This manuscript is written in a combination of Latin and Italian, which I've translated sloppily. The anonymous author promises his reader a list of "simple remedies gathered from diverse and celebrated authorities," but on page 591 we encounter a gruesome remedy that is anything but simple:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<b>The regenerated mummy or microcosmic tincture:</b> Take the body of a mummy with its own form and substance, whether it be a discrete limb, or the entire body, and allow this to putrefy in conserve of violets for a month, so that it becomes a mutillagenous blood. Then strain the putrefied matter and conserve this material… From this 'embrionic' mummy material you can separate a tincture. </blockquote>
<br />
The alchemist Oswald Crull's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Bi6x_okHl30C&source=gbs_similarbooks"><i>Basilica chymica</i> (1608)</a> gets even more specific, and macabre:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
Take the fresh corpse of a redhaired, uninjured, unblemished man, 24 years old and killed no more than one day before, preferably by hanging, breaking on the wheel or impaling… Leave it one day and one night in the light of the sun and the moon, then cut into strips. Sprinkle on a little powder of myrrh to prevent it from being too bitter. Steep in spirit of wine for several days. As the foulness of it causes an intolerable humidity in the stomach, it is a good idea to macerate the mummy with oil.</blockquote>
It's hard to say how Croll expected his reader to successfully obtain a redhaired man of the exact age of 24 years who had died <i>one day before</i>. Imagining early modern physicians even attempting such a thing – let alone prescribing the bizarre "drug" of myrrh-coated human jerky that Croll's recipe describes – is a bit mind-boggling for me. Indeed, I wonder to what degree these recipes actually were carried out in practice. Were such elaborate descriptions of medicinal cannibalism more theoretical than practical?<br />
<br />
The complex references to a "spiritual mummy" in the writings of Paracelsus, famously<a href="http://www.freefictionbooks.org/books/m/15479-memoirs-of-extraordinary-popular-delusions-and-the?start=181"> described in </a><i><a href="http://www.freefictionbooks.org/books/m/15479-memoirs-of-extraordinary-popular-delusions-and-the?start=181">Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds</a>,</i> seem to me to point to a widespread metaphorical use of "mummy" to refer not to actual human bodies but to a theory of how illness and cures operate on the body. On the other hand, it is hard to get around the material evidence from apothecary jars, and the resolutely specific and tactile descriptions of dismembering and consuming human bodies in texts like Crull and <i>Viridiarum Regale</i>.<br />
<br />
As my friend Rachel Herrmann put it in her <a href="http://www.academia.edu/428792/The_tragicall_historie_Cannibalism_and_Abundance_in_Colonial_Jamestown">research into cannibalism and starvation in colonial Jamestown</a>: in the early modern era, humans truly were "the other, other white meat."<br />
<br />
<b>Further reading:</b><br />
<i><br /></i>• <a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415674174/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415674174">Richard Sugg, <i>Mummies</i>, <i>Cannibals and Vampires: The History of Corpse Medicine from the Renaissance to the Victorians </i>(Routledge, 2011)</a><br />
• <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Medicinal-Cannibalism-English-Literature-Cultural/dp/0230110274">Louise Noble, <i>Medicinal Cannibalism in Early Modern Literature and Culture </i>(Pallgrave, 2011)</a><br />
<i>The Chirurgeon's Apprentice </i>on <a href="http://thechirurgeonsapprentice.com/2011/02/25/drinking-blood-and-eating-flesh-corpse-medicine-in-early-modern-england/">"corpse medicine in early modern England."</a><br />
• <a href="http://www.academia.edu/428792/The_tragicall_historie_Cannibalism_and_Abundance_in_Colonial_Jamestown">Rachel Herrmann, "The "tragicall historie": Cannibalism and Abundance in Colonial Jamestown"</a><br />
• <a href="http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/25056942?uid=3739560&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21101518764421">Karen Gordon-Grube, "Evidence of Medicinal Cannibalism in Puritan New England"</a></div>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-33779743705393953802012-10-23T13:22:00.000-05:002012-10-23T18:28:34.150-05:00A Spaniard in Samarkand, 1404<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-G9c0wQMX-rQ/UIbXGpAxWPI/AAAAAAAABCk/AHGEq2GlZ6Y/s1600/res+obcura+samarkand+header.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-G9c0wQMX-rQ/UIbXGpAxWPI/AAAAAAAABCk/AHGEq2GlZ6Y/s640/res+obcura+samarkand+header.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;">Special note: an earlier version of this post appeared on a new blog I helped develop in partnership with <a href="http://www.notevenpast.org/" target="_blank">Not Even Past</a> of the University of Texas at Austin and <a href="http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/origins/" target="_blank">Origins</a> (Ohio State University). Check it out here: <a href="http://historymilestones.tumblr.com/">historymilestones.tumblr.com</a></span></i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">O</span>n September 8, 1404</b>, <b>the Castilian diplomat <a href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/clavijo/cltxt1.html" target="_blank">Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo</a></b> reached the Silk Road city of Samarkand. He had travelled over five thousand miles by foot, sail, horse and camel; passed through steppe, deserts, seas and mountains.<br />
<br />
Now he had reached his destination: the capital of a vast new empire created by a military genius, mass murderer and patron of the arts named <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur" target="_blank">Timur</a> (meaning “iron” in Persian). De Clavijo’s lord, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_Castile" target="_blank">King Henry III of Castile</a>, had dispatched him to learn more about the man who Europeans called Tamurlane. If possible, he was to forge a peace treaty with the world-conqueror, whose sack of Baghdad alone caused the deaths of hundreds of thousands.<br />
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Clavijo recorded his entrance to the capital in great detail, noting the stores of “silks, satins, musk, rubies, diamonds, pearls, and <a href="http://www.yinyanghouse.com/theory/herbalmedicine/da_huang_tcm_herbal_database" target="_blank">rhubarb</a>” carried from China, the painted elephants, vast tent pavilions with fluttering jeweled banners, and the frenzied pace of construction. He noted that work on the largest mosque in the city had been completed just before his arrival, but Timur ordered its gate to be torn down again because it lacked grandeur.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wUavKPi9q8o/UIbYD2fauXI/AAAAAAAABCs/n6LS1kxrUlM/s1600/orientalist+samarkand.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="490" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wUavKPi9q8o/UIbYD2fauXI/AAAAAAAABCs/n6LS1kxrUlM/s640/orientalist+samarkand.jpeg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><b>An orientalist nineteenth century Russian view of Samarkand in the time of Timur.</b> Oil on canvas, Vasily Vereshchagin, 1842. [All images via Wikimedia Commons.]</i></td></tr>
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The arrival of Clavijo and the party of other ambassadors who he accompanied to the cosmopolitan city provoked mild interest, but mainly on account of their strange clothes and quaint customs. Medieval Castilians, it seems, were regarded as rather backward and provincial in the world of the Silk Road. Upon their entry to the city, he recorded, the party passed through a “plain covered with gardens, and houses, and markets where they sold many things.” They came to the gates of the city after several hours travel through this lush hinterland, being greeted by “ six elephants, with wooden castles on their backs”:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>The [Samarkand] ambassadors went forward, and found the [Spanish] men, who had the presents well arranged on their arms, and they advanced with them in company with the two knights, who held them by the armpits, and the ambassador whom Timour Beg [Tamerlane] had sent to the king of Castille was with them; and those who saw him, laughed at him, because he was dressed in the costume and fashion of Castille. </i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVkMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=%22ambassadors+went+forward,+and+found+the%22&source=bl&ots=DcF4HnBHv1&sig=uEYKmHZZtaBnjYeSZaAYF9PbQ1Q&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eeGGUKePMM2ayQHCgIG4AQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22ambassadors%20went%20forward%2C%20and%20found%20the%22&f=false" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">[Source]</span></a></blockquote>
De Clavijo referred here to Hajji Muhammad al-Qazi, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagatai_language" target="_blank">Chagatai</a> courtier who had visited the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" target="_blank">court of Castile in Toledo</a> several years earlier. Al-Qazi had been sent by Timur to offer gifts and letters to the Iberian monarch – Clavijo was now in Samarkand to return the favor.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-CmAKIRiTmEw/UIbbJhjibOI/AAAAAAAABC8/_0momwnLeqw/s1600/Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand_cropped.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="604" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-CmAKIRiTmEw/UIbbJhjibOI/AAAAAAAABC8/_0momwnLeqw/s640/Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand_cropped.jpeg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Prokudin-Gorsky" target="_blank">Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky</a>'s photograph of a Rabbi instructing Jewish youths in Samarkand circa 1911 offers a vivid glimpse at the costumes of Samarkand's citizens prior to the introduction of Western clothing.</b> Via the Library of Congress photograph collection.</i></td></tr>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">W</span>hy was a small Christian country</b> on the farthest western fringe of Europe interacting with a Muslim emperor of central Asia in the first place? The era of Timur marked a high-point in what has been called the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_globalization" target="_blank">archaic</a>" or "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-globalization" target="_blank">early modern globalization</a>" of the world, a period when travelers from the Christian, Muslim and Chinese worlds (like Clavijo's rough contemporaries <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" target="_blank">Ibn Battuta</a> and the Chinese admiral <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He" target="_blank">Zheng He</a>) successfully travelled vast distances across Eurasia by land and sea.<br />
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As the Oxford historian John Darwin noted in his book <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/After-Tamerlane-Global-History-Empire/dp/1596913932" target="_blank">After Tamerlane</a></i>, Timur was a figure of crucial importance in world history because he was the last great nomadic warlord. Like the armies of Attila the Hun and Ghengis Khan, Timur’s forces were multi-ethnic conglomerations of Turkic, Mongol, Chagatai, Persian and north Indian peoples who were united under a common banner by the sheer charisma and military skill of a single man. His empire was not a state in the traditional sense, but a pan-tribal confederacy held together by military force.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-jB7Rb9vVKgU/UIbcUY-fyhI/AAAAAAAABDE/DxLuTMuB9JQ/s1600/Letter_of_Tamerlane_to_Charles_VI_1402.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-jB7Rb9vVKgU/UIbcUY-fyhI/AAAAAAAABDE/DxLuTMuB9JQ/s640/Letter_of_Tamerlane_to_Charles_VI_1402.jpeg" width="304" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Letter_of_Tamerlane_to_Charles_VI_1402.jpg" style="font-weight: bold;" target="_blank">A rare surviving letter</a><b> from Tamerlane to King <br />Charles</b> <b>VI of France, written in Persian circa <br />1402. </b>Archives Nationales, Paris.</i></td></tr>
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Timur’s tactics were highly sophisticated, requiring years of planning and complex organization.<br />
Yet in fundamental ways they were pre-modern: like Genghis Khan, Timur and his commanders relied upon the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_military_tactics_and_organization#Mobility" target="_blank"> mobility of massed mounted archers</a> who could repeatedly gallop toward opponents, launch a volley of arrows and hasten away. His horseback archers, fighting at the dawn of the advent of gunpowder weaponry, were the last nomad army that could threaten the settled, urbanized states of China, south Asia, the Arab world and Europe.<br />
<br />
By contrast, the <a href="http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his112/Notes/Gunpowder.html" target="_blank">“gunpowder empires”</a> that succeeded Timur – the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, British and French in Europe, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire" target="_blank">Mughals</a> (who were themselves an offshoot of Timur’s dynasty) in India, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Empire" target="_blank">Qing</a> in China – all relied on conscripted armies, state finances, and ‘hi-tech’ devices like musket rifles, cannons and sailing ships. The triumph of these more modern approaches to conquest and empire in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries marked an epochal transformation. Ever since agricultural city-states emerged in Mesopotamia and Egypt in the 4th millennium BCE, human societies had been divided between hunter-gatherer or pastoralist nomads and settled cultivators. The threat of invasions by nomads from the vast steppes of Eurasia had instilled terror in town-dwellers from the earliest written records in Sumeria to the Middle Ages. After Timur, the agricultural, urban model of human society decisively won out over that of nomadism. The winners modeled ‘civilization’ in their own image.<br />
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Yet although Timur was famous for his cruelty – in one grisly episode, he supposedly murdered all 70,000 inhabitants of the Persian city of Isfahan for resisting his occupation – he was by no means a barbarian. Indeed, Clavijo was clearly overawed by the society he encountered in a region that is today regarded as a desert backwater. He was impressed by the gardens surrounding Timur’s palace, by the enormous variety of goods that the Silk Road yielded, and by the splendid feasts that Timur’s men enjoyed:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>When the lord called for meat, the people dragged it to him on pieces of leather, so great was its weight; and as soon as it was within twenty paces of him, the carvers came, who cut it up, kneeling on the leather… When the roast and boiled meats were done with, they brought meats dressed in various other ways, and balls of forced meat; and after that, there came fruit, melons, grapes, and nectarines; and they gave them drink out of silver and golden jugs, particularly sugar and cream, a pleasant beverage, which they make in the summer time </i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rQlDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA134&lpg=PA134&dq=%22When+the+lord+called+for+meat,%22&source=bl&ots=T0MnxJtbr0&sig=FxxmrSQm0LQ9JUzUGL4YdHtaGes&hl=en&sa=X&ei=suKGULLWKoS-yQHo2oDABg&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22When%20the%20lord%20called%20for%20meat%2C%22&f=false" target="_blank">[Source].</a></span></blockquote>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XpaDP54l5z0/UIbYnn0mtFI/AAAAAAAABC0/YfMH6FfzmeM/s1600/Timur_defeats_the_sultan_of_Delhi.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XpaDP54l5z0/UIbYnn0mtFI/AAAAAAAABC0/YfMH6FfzmeM/s1600/Timur_defeats_the_sultan_of_Delhi.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><b>"The Defeat by Timur of the Sultan of Delhi, Nasir Al-Din Mahmum <br />Tughluq, in the winter of 1397-1398."</b> Watercolor painting by <br />Zafarnama, from India circa 1600.</i></td></tr>
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Clavijo seemed particularly eager to note the favor that Timur showed to the King of Castile. When he was presented to the world-conqueror, Clavijo was surprised to find that “he was sitting on the ground.” Timur sat cross-legged before a fountain “which threw up the water very high,” wearing a silk robe and a hat studded with rubies and pearls. The Castilian proudly related that when he entered his presence, “Timour Beg turned to the knights who had seated around him… and said, ‘Behold! here are the ambassadors sent by my son the king of Spain, who is the greatest king of the Franks, and lives at the end of the world.’”<br />
<br />
Clavijo’s mission – to forge a treaty with Timur in order to fight their common enemy, the Ottoman sultans of Turkey – ultimately failed. Nonetheless, his account gives us a fascinating glimpse into a now-vanished world (as do the entrancingly vivid memoirs of Timur's direct descendant, emperor Jahangir of the Mughal empire). Timur was the final manifestation of a mighty world-historical force: the nomadic empire. Turkic and other central Asian warlords would continue to control the Russian steppe and the Silk Road cities for centuries, but never again would a leader from the center of what some called “the World Island” of Asia cast fear into the hearts of Chinese emperors and Christian kings alike.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;">L</span>ess than two hundred years later, </b><a href="http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/marlowebio.htm" target="_blank">Christopher Marlowe</a> – the celebrated Elizabethan playwright known for his brilliance, homosexuality and violent death in a tavern brawl – would write his most celebrated play, the full title of which gives insight into the mixture of wonder and fear that surrounded Timur’s legacy: <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1094/1094-h/1094-h.htm" target="_blank">Tamburlaine the Great, who, from a Scythian Shephearde, by his rare and wonderfull Conquests, became a most puissant and mightye Monarque. And (for his tyranny and terrour in Warre) was tearmed, the Scourge of God</a></i> (London, 1590).<br />
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Already by Marlowe's time, Timur and his Silk Road world of nomads and warriors had become the stuff of legend. The balance of power had now shifted from nomadic tribes to emerging nation-states. Charismatic warlords had been supplanted by maritime monarchs like Phillip II of Spain – the descendant of Clavijo’s Castilian king— or controllers of vast state bureaucracies like the Qing emperors of China. Yet for Marlowe, Timur’s legacy remained:<br />
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<i>Then shall my native city, Samarqand…</i></div>
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<i>Be famous through the furthest continents,</i> </div>
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<i>For there my palace-royal shall be placed,</i> </div>
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<i>Whose shining turrets shall dismay the heavens... </i></div>
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Some more photographs of Samarkand by Sergei Prokudin-Gorski, <a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2010/09/color-photographs-of-vanished-russia.html" target="_blank">who I posted about back in 2010</a>:<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Y4t6Hfe1K9U/UIbe_U2ygbI/AAAAAAAABDM/LkHJKQJ26CU/s1600/melon+vender+samarkand+res.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="632" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Y4t6Hfe1K9U/UIbe_U2ygbI/AAAAAAAABDM/LkHJKQJ26CU/s640/melon+vender+samarkand+res.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-43422568324962249582012-06-11T18:59:00.003-05:002019-12-06T14:17:13.702-06:00From Quacks to Quaaludes: Three Centuries of Drug Advertising<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Eli Lilly Amphedroxyn (methamphetamine) advertisement, 1951. <i>New York </i><br />
<i>State Journal of Medicine</i>, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Via the <a href="http://www.bonkersinstitute.org/medshow/meth.html" target="_blank">Bonkers Institute</a>).</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-YjG0ekzvMc8/T9ZQyJRnL-I/AAAAAAAAA94/5GGS20UOt-Y/s1600/Joao+Curvo+Semedo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="248" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-YjG0ekzvMc8/T9ZQyJRnL-I/AAAAAAAAA94/5GGS20UOt-Y/s320/Joao+Curvo+Semedo.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Portuguese physician João Curvo Semedo, 1707, sporting<br />
the extravagant locks typical of his era. Image via<br />
the <a href="http://purl.pt/22557/1/" target="_blank">Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal</a>.</td></tr>
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In his book <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=a5Yp_B8h-V0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank">Polyanthea Medicinal</a></i> (Lisbon, 1697), a Portuguese doctor and seller of <i>remedios secretos </i>("secret remedies") named João Curvo Semedo listed hundreds of early modern drug recipes. Semedo rather resembled the British drug seller and author William Salmon (who I wrote about in a <a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2011/02/defaced-herbal-from-1710-william.html" target="_blank">previous post</a>) in his readiness to experiment with both remedies from the New World and alchemical preparations being developed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrochemistry" target="_blank">acolytes of Paracelsus</a>. The substances listed as medicinal drugs in <i>Polyanthea Medicinal </i>run the gamut from dog feces to powdered pearls, and from ordinary table salt to mysterious stones "found on the beach of <i>Casomdama</i> in the Kingdom of Angola," which, "after being put in wounds caused by any venomous beast, will draw out the venom." The unusual range of Semedo's pharmacy led one nineteenth century Portuguese medical student to remark in his doctoral thesis that he believed the book would "nauseate" any modern reader. Later generations tended to view Semedo as a physician in the <a href="http://thequackdoctor.com/" target="_blank">"quack doctor" tradition of mountebanks and snake-oil salesman</a>. Interestingly, he actually acknowledged this criticism in his own work, beginning his book with the following "plea to the Readers." (The below is a rough paraphrase from the rather more Baroque Portuguese original):<br />
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<i>In the Parisian Court, and in many other parts of the world, there are those who knowing some singular remedy, affix papers at the most traficked roads, proclaiming to all who live in these areas that they have a panacea useful for all illnesses. These fellows distribute their papers to people they encounter in the street, so that all may know where to go to find such a remedy. <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span> </i></blockquote>
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<i>Such men gain such profit from this that they desire to do the same in Portugal, and give notice of secret medicines... However I have long suppressed my wish to follow suit, knowing that these days there is no labor that escapes the malice of others. Now however, the criticisms that have been made about my aim are not able to ignite the fire of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_temperaments#Choleric" target="_blank">choler</a> in my heart, because my anger has been reduced to little more than ashes. Thus I resolve to speak of the medicines which I myself possess. </i></blockquote>
The ensuing list of what Semedo called "the Remedies that I prepare in my house" included his eponymous preparation "Bezoartico Curviano," an "Agua Lusitana" (Portuguese water), and a "powder which cures the involuntary flux of semen."<br />
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Similar advertisements for specially prepared drug formulations began to appear in medical texts throughout Europe in the late seventeenth century. Readers of English language newspapers in the era of Newton and Locke, for instance, began to encounter notices such as the following, from the newspaper <i>Domestick Intelligence or News both from City and Country </i>(12 Sept 1679, originally <a href="http://thequackdoctor.com/index.php/the-aqua-antitorminalis-for-griping-in-the-guts/" target="_blank">plucked out of obscurity by Carolyn Rance at <i>the Quack Doctor</i></a>):<br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Xjf_GHNRESs/T9ZNnYzBVCI/AAAAAAAAA9s/QQbM7iqfrOc/s1600/domestickintelligence12sept1679.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="584" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Xjf_GHNRESs/T9ZNnYzBVCI/AAAAAAAAA9s/QQbM7iqfrOc/s640/domestickintelligence12sept1679.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
This sort of thing might not quite have the same form or content as the 1950s advertisement for methamphetamine that begins this post, but it was the beginning of a long tradition that wed drug marketing with global capitalism and print culture. The fruits of this alliance are very much still with us -- whenever you see an advertisement for Lipitor or Adderall in a magazine or on a billboard, or your physician offers you a free sample of a drug given to him by a pharmaceutical sales rep, you're unwittingly taking part in a tradition that dates back to the first era of entrepreneurial drug merchants in the second half of the seventeenth century. Indeed, pharmaceutical giant Merck <a href="http://www.merckgroup.com/en/company/history/history.html" target="_blank">dates its founding</a> to an apothecary named Friedrick Jacob Merck who opened his drug shop in precisely this early modern era of global commercial expansion and medical experimentation -- 1668, to be precise.<br />
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The following advertisements bring the story forward to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Some of the things here -- like the popularity of cocaine as an energy tonic and ingredient in Coca-Cola around the turn of the twentieth century -- will probably be familiar. Others, like the fact that methamphetamine (under the trade name Desoxyn) is <a href="http://www.pdrhealth.com/drugs/desoxyn" target="_blank">still approved by the FDA as a weight loss drug</a>, might be less well known. Most of the images below were collected by <a href="http://www.bonkersinstitute.org/medicineshow.html" target="_blank">Ben Hansen of the Bonkers Institute</a>, and I direct interested readers to his unusual and rather fascinating site for more where these came from.<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-NPLqe1knKtg/T9ZYBoAFvOI/AAAAAAAAA_o/-_GOWAcWV2c/s1600/Wedel,+Opiologia,+1739+(third+edition).png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-NPLqe1knKtg/T9ZYBoAFvOI/AAAAAAAAA_o/-_GOWAcWV2c/s640/Wedel,+Opiologia,+1739+(third+edition).png" width="496" /></a></div>
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Following the public praise of opium preparations by the leading physician of the late seventeenth century, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Sydenham" target="_blank">Thomas Sydenham</a>, opium and laudanum became the celebrated "wonder drug" of eighteenth century medicine. George Wolfgang Wedel's <i>Opiologia</i> (First edition 1682) featured an engraving of a Turkish man harvesting poppy pods on its title page, offering a hint of the entanglement between the drug and the eighteenth century interest in exotic locales and distant cultures. This would later play a role in the Romantic-era fascination with laudanum as well.</div>
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Y4Qnny-C1lI/T9ZXuOWm_dI/AAAAAAAAA_g/FFCmtTiDS_o/s1600/mrs-winslow1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="404" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Y4Qnny-C1lI/T9ZXuOWm_dI/AAAAAAAAA_g/FFCmtTiDS_o/s640/mrs-winslow1.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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The Victorians made opium-based remedies into a global industry. This 1885 ad (originally sourced from the Quack Doctor blog) championed Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup, a morphine-based preparation for infants. This particular preparation was first formulated in the 1840s, during the apex of British imperial power.</div>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ej8VmNYlZ08/T9aFchuVUjI/AAAAAAAABAk/n8ETgj5WQbA/s1600/Wolcott's+Instant+Pain+Annihilator.gif" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ej8VmNYlZ08/T9aFchuVUjI/AAAAAAAABAk/n8ETgj5WQbA/s640/Wolcott's+Instant+Pain+Annihilator.gif" width="406" /></a></div>
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"The exact ingredients of Wolcott's Instant Pain Annihilator (c. 1863) are unknown. But ethyl alcohol and opium figured prominently in the mix."</div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Dfnh3m2N_2U/T9ZVf3cQyoI/AAAAAAAAA-Q/GEGy_oVw6x4/s1600/+F.+Newberry+%2526+Sons++Effervescent++BRAIN+SALT+%252C+1888.gif" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Dfnh3m2N_2U/T9ZVf3cQyoI/AAAAAAAAA-Q/GEGy_oVw6x4/s640/+F.+Newberry+%2526+Sons++Effervescent++BRAIN+SALT+%252C+1888.gif" width="382" /></a></div>
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Many late-19th century drugs of this type failed to specify their active ingredients. Boasts of curing "nervous fatigue" or, as this label for "Brain Salt" puts it, "Over Brainwork," often pointed to the inclusion of a sedative or opiate, but consumers were largely unaware of what precisely they were imbibing. A parallel with the <a href="http://www.vice.com/read/interview-with-ketamine-chemist-704-v18n2" target="_blank">present-day gray market of internet-bought research chemicals</a> might be made.</div>
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-QQ8vnpfzsgY/T9ZVpZVYxyI/AAAAAAAAA-Y/WKABTaMYzrM/s1600/Coca-Cola+ad%252C+circa+1886+.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="544" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-QQ8vnpfzsgY/T9ZVpZVYxyI/AAAAAAAAA-Y/WKABTaMYzrM/s640/Coca-Cola+ad%252C+circa+1886+.gif" width="640" /></a></div>
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As is well known, <a href="http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/cocaine.asp">Coca-Cola originally began its life as a medicinal tonic that boasted the stimulating </a><a href="http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/cocaine.asp">alkaloids found in both cocaine and the cola nut</a>. Early advertising, such as this ad from the late 1880s, marketed the drink as a health tonic that relieved exhaustion and nervous strain - as it surely did. Interestingly, the note at left shows how it was also marketed as a "temperance drink." Cocaine had not yet gained infamy as an illicit drug at this point. Indeed, it was being <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud#Cocaine">championed by Sigmund Freud in</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud#Cocaine"> precisely the same period</a>.</div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-HreZXzEqqxI/T9ZXhEhDXSI/AAAAAAAAA_Y/EAThYAJ8mP0/s1600/heroin-ad.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="475" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-HreZXzEqqxI/T9ZXhEhDXSI/AAAAAAAAA_Y/EAThYAJ8mP0/s640/heroin-ad.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
The invention of heroin -- here portrayed as a "sedative for coughs" comparable to aspirin in this circa 1900 advertisement by Bayer -- did not immediately produce outcries from law enforcement and anti-drug crusaders. It was initially a legal and fairly widely prescribed medicine; indeed the very name "Heroin" is in fact a trademark held under copyright by the Bayer Corporation.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Benzedrine advertisements, 1943 & 1944. <i>Journal of the American Medical Association</i>, Vol. 123, No. 10; Vol. 124, No. 12.</td></tr>
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With the marketing of Benzedrine (amphetamine) as a bronchodilator starting in 1928, amphetamines became widely popular among drug consumers, especially World War II pilots and others who needed to stay awake for long periods. </div>
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It wasn't long before the euphoric properties of Benzedrine inhalers became well known, and even commemorated in popular music. "Who Put the Ovaltine in Mrs. Murphy's Ovaltine?" was the memorable title of a 1944 hit single released by Harry "the Hipster" Gibson:</div>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OOKBmkdgVgc/T9ZW87aOUoI/AAAAAAAAA_I/pxZYLD6UA4Q/s1600/Mornidine+advertisement%252C+1959.+Canadian+Medical+Association+Journal%252C+Vol.+81%252C+No.+1%252C+p.+59.+.gif" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OOKBmkdgVgc/T9ZW87aOUoI/AAAAAAAAA_I/pxZYLD6UA4Q/s640/Mornidine+advertisement%252C+1959.+Canadian+Medical+Association+Journal%252C+Vol.+81%252C+No.+1%252C+p.+59.+.gif" width="412" /></a></div>
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Drug advertisements in the 1950s and 1960s increasingly began to cater to women, particularly housewives. However, in true 1950s fashion, the ads seem to be targeting the <i>husbands</i> of housewives rather than the women themselves. This advertisement for Mornidine is from the <i>Canadian Medical Association Journal</i>, 1959, Vol. 81, No. 1, p. 59.</div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MTBLYpAi1zA/T9ZXQiCNoZI/AAAAAAAAA_Q/OpytKOrpcak/s1600/Ambar+methamphetamine%253Aphenobarbital+advertisement%252C+1964+JAMA-+the+Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Association%252C+Vol.+1%252C+No.+5385.+.gif" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MTBLYpAi1zA/T9ZXQiCNoZI/AAAAAAAAA_Q/OpytKOrpcak/s640/Ambar+methamphetamine%253Aphenobarbital+advertisement%252C+1964+JAMA-+the+Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Association%252C+Vol.+1%252C+No.+5385.+.gif" width="494" /></a></div>
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"Adorable then... deplorable now" was the remarkably judgmental tagline of the new weight-loss drug Ambar - a mixture of methamphetamine and phenorbarbital, shown here in a 1964 advertisement in the <i>Journal of the American Medical Association</i> (Vol. 1, No. 5385). </div>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TgpUszTlVvc/T9ZWPcUVCKI/AAAAAAAAA-o/QzSz-QwClhY/s1600/Quaalude+advertisement%252C+1971.+Archives+of+General+Psychiatry%252C+Vol.+25%252C+No.+5%252C+pp.+30-32..gif" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TgpUszTlVvc/T9ZWPcUVCKI/AAAAAAAAA-o/QzSz-QwClhY/s640/Quaalude+advertisement%252C+1971.+Archives+of+General+Psychiatry%252C+Vol.+25%252C+No.+5%252C+pp.+30-32..gif" width="457" /></a></div>
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Predictably, drug advertising became more "feel-good" and consumer-focused in the 1970s. This 1971 ad for Quaaludes (Methaqualone) bears a basic resemblance to contemporary drug advertising with its glossy portrayal of a happy family scene and its side effects relegated to a small-print facing page. In an interesting side note, the history of Quaaludes offers a glimpse of how the pharmaceutical business, and global capitalism in general, was changing in the twentieth century. Like methamphetamine, which was synthesized by the Japanese chemist Nagai Nagayoshi in 1893, Methaqualone was invented in the non-Western world: it was synthesized in India by Indra Kishore Kacker and Syed Hussain Zaheer in 1951.</div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">One common theme of these drug advertisements is the manner in which they use branding, particularly naming practices, to differentiate what is actually a surprisingly small core group of consumer drugs. Adderall, for instance, is simply a trade name for a mixture of amphetamine salts - of which one quarter is d,l racemic amphetamine, i.e. our old friend Benzedrine. This is a story that goes back to the era of João Curvo Semedo, William Salmon and Thomas Sydenham. Rather than marketing one's "remedio secreto" as nothing more than a tincture of opium in wine, early modern drug sellers seized on the idea of selling these preparations under catchy names -- "Sydenham's Drops," for instance -- and obscuring their source ingredients. This marked, arguably, the beginning of the massive pharmaceutical branding industry.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Those wishing to find more vintage drug advertisements merely need to type that phrase into Google in order to find a true treasure trove of images (although many are sadly lacking identifying info). Two particular riches sources can be found <a href="http://www.bonkersinstitute.org/medicineshow.html" target="_blank">here</a> and <a href="http://www.practiceofmadness.com/tag/advertising/" target="_blank">here</a>. (For the culture of contemporary drugs more generally, I've also been enjoying <a href="http://hamiltonmorris.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Hamilton Morris</a>'s <i><a href="http://www.vice.com/hamiltons-pharmacopeia" target="_blank">Hamilton's Pharmacopeia</a> </i>series). The history of drug advertising in the pre-modern world is much more lacking in documentation and analysis. One approach can be found in <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/28577/" target="_blank">this interesting paper</a> on "Exotic drugs and English medicine" by Patrick Wallis of the London School of Economics, which is available online.</span><br />
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Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-54448548531561195822012-04-30T12:55:00.001-05:002012-04-30T17:54:03.044-05:00Images of a New World: the Watercolors of John White<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666;"><i>This is a cross-posting from a piece I recently wrote for the </i><a href="http://publicdomainreview.org/" style="font-style: italic;" target="_blank">Public Domain Review</a><i>. For this version of the post, I've supplemented the original with quite a few more images which are sourced from the </i><a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_results.aspx?objectId=728322&partId=1&searchText=Drawn+by+John+White&fromADBC=ad&toADBC=ad&orig=%2Fresearch%2Fsearch_the_collection_database.aspx&images=on&numPages=10&currentPage=38&queryAll=People%2F!!%2FOR%2F!!%2F103070%2F!%2F103070-2-23%2F!%2FAfter+John+White%2F!%2F%2F!!%2F%2F!!!%2F&allCurrentPage=1" style="font-style: italic;" target="_blank">British Museum</a><i> and are reproduced here under its </i><a href="http://collection.britishmuseum.org/Licensing" style="font-style: italic;" target="_blank">fair use agreement</a><i>. As a side note, I've been remiss in updating Res Obscura lately because I've been in the thick of my dissertation research, and have also been traveling. But I'm working on a couple new posts at the moment so I expect to start updating more regularly again. - </i>BB</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;">“A</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">s</span> lucklesse to many, as sinister to myselfe.” Such was the Elizabethan colonist John White’s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_yhAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=%22As+lucklesse+to+many,+as+sinister+to+my+self.'&hl=en&sa=X&ei=drKeT5GSKY_98QPHyK2DDw&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22As%20lucklesse%20to%20many%22&f=false" target="_blank">gloomy assessment</a> of his tenure as the first governor of Britain’s fledgling colony on Roanoke Island, Virginia. As White lived out his final days on an Irish plantation in 1593, he struggled to come to terms with his ambivalent legacy in the <a href="http://library.brown.edu/find/Record/b1130772" target="_blank">“Newe found Worlde.”</a><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-fsH3UpHbd44/T56zPHx18XI/AAAAAAAAA68/5TMebejT0ks/s1600/409px-Sir_Richard_Grenville_from_NPG.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-fsH3UpHbd44/T56zPHx18XI/AAAAAAAAA68/5TMebejT0ks/s320/409px-Sir_Richard_Grenville_from_NPG.jpg" width="218" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Anonymous portrait of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Grenville" target="_blank">Sir Richard Grenville</a><br />
from the National Portrait Gallery.</td></tr>
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Just eight years earlier, White had set out for North America as part of an expedition lead by a fiery-tempered courtier named <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Grenville" target="_blank">Sir Richard Grenville</a>. This voyage was not without its challenges – White recalled laconically that in a battle with Spanish mariners he was “wounded twise in the head, once with a sword, and another time with a pike, and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbCI7z4UwMC&pg=PA273&dq=buttocke+wound&hl=en&sa=X&ei=a7eeT7i1KMqO8gOq6fX0Dg&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=buttocke%20wound&f=false" target="_blank">hurt also in the side of the buttoke</a> with a shot.” Yet in this time White also witnessed natural marvels, helped build a new colony, and even celebrated the birth of his now-famous granddaughter, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Dare" target="_blank">Virginia Dare</a>, the first child of English/Christian parentage to be born on American soil. Ultimately, however, White’s ambitions ended in catastrophe, with the mysterious disappearance of the ninety men, seventeen women, and eleven children who comprised the Roanoke colony – a group that included his daughter and granddaughter.<br />
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In the centuries since White’s death, his story has diverged in an interesting way. Generations of schoolchildren raised in the United States can probably recall reading about the “Lost Colony” at Roanoke in textbooks. In these simplified accounts, White and his fellow colonists typically figure as doomed but visionary pioneers in a larger narrative of British-American exceptionalism. Among professional historians, White is equally famous, but for rather different reasons. In recent histories of colonial British America, it is John White the artist, rather than John White the colonial governor, who takes center stage. This is because White was a watercolor painter of extraordinary talent whose works number among the most remarkable depictions of early modern indigenous Americans ever created.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-KYDPXbVKAP0/T57NCnmyQ4I/AAAAAAAAA7g/Zp8a2SMjFoM/s1600/7105633259_ef1bfe5c07_b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-KYDPXbVKAP0/T57NCnmyQ4I/AAAAAAAAA7g/Zp8a2SMjFoM/s1600/7105633259_ef1bfe5c07_b.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'The Flyer', a Secotan Indian holy man or "conjuror" (as the British often called them) painted by John White in 1585. British Museum, London.</td></tr>
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To be sure, many other European contemporaries of White offered up visual depictions of native Americans. Readers of André Thevet’s early account of Brazil, <i>Les singularitez de la France antarctique</i> (Paris, 1557), for instance, could expect to be treated to renderings of Tupí Indians harvesting fruit, singing songs (complete with musical notation recorded by Thevet) and even munching casually on barbequed human thighs and buttocks.<br />
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Yet White’s illustrations stood out among those of his peers. Rather than working via woodblock printing or engraving, White produced paintings in vivid watercolors. This allowed him to achieve a level of lifelike detail which printed illustrations couldn’t hope to match. One of the most striking examples of White’s eye for detail is found in his tender depiction of an Algonquian Indian mother with her daughter.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-4MkkljHpDJY/T57MOgg-_tI/AAAAAAAAA7Q/oxGaDO0trm8/s1600/7105633531_295fd6d0dd_b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-4MkkljHpDJY/T57MOgg-_tI/AAAAAAAAA7Q/oxGaDO0trm8/s1600/7105633531_295fd6d0dd_b.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John White, "A cheife Herowans wyfe of Pomeoc and her daughter of the age of 8 or 10 years." (1585) British Museum, London.</td></tr>
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In 1585, one of White’s companions in Virginia, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Harriot" target="_blank">natural philosopher and inventor Thomas Harriot</a>, remarked that the indigenous children he encountered in America “greatlye delighted with puppets and babes which are broughte oute of England.” White’s painting actually offers a direct visual proof of this observation: in the hands of the woman’s child, one can spot a tiny female doll wearing Elizabethan dress.<br />
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As the historian Joyce Chaplin notes in her book <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674011228/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674011228%22%3ESubject%20Matter:%20Technology,%20the%20Body,%20and%20Science%20on%20the%20Anglo-American%20Frontier,%201500-1676%3C/a%3E%3Cimg%20src=%22http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0674011228%22%20width=%221%22%20height=%221%22%20border=%220%22%20alt=%22%22%20style=%22border:none%20!important;%20margin:0px%20!important;%22%20/%3E" target="_blank">Subject Matter: Technology, the Body, and Science on the Anglo-American Frontier, 1500-1676</a></i> (Harvard University Press, 2003), this image was later recreated by the Dutch printmaker Theodore de Bry, who used White’s watercolors to create engravings for Thomas Hariot’s A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia (1590). De Bry’s depiction shows the Indian girl holding not only “an English doll in Elizabethan clothing,” but “an armillary sphere,” which served as “an instructional and decorative representation of the globe and heavens” (Chaplin 36).<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-z4aawOcaY4o/T57OlV-m9UI/AAAAAAAAA7w/OFy3ukA0Bo0/s1600/e141b91-p10_eda4fb7d70.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="447" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-z4aawOcaY4o/T57OlV-m9UI/AAAAAAAAA7w/OFy3ukA0Bo0/s640/e141b91-p10_eda4fb7d70.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Engraving by Theodore de Bry after John White's watercolour, from Thomas Hariot’s<br />
<i>A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia</i> (1590)</td></tr>
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Remarkably, <a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_details.aspx?objectid=3099596&partid=1&output=People%2f!!%2fOR%2f!!%2f103070%2f!%2f103070-2-23%2f!%2fAfter+John+White%2f!%2f%2f!!%2f%2f!!!%2f&orig=%2fresearch%2fsearch_the_collection_database%2fadvanced_search.aspx&currentPage=12&numpages=10" target="_blank">according to the British Museum</a>, this engraving served as the inspiration for a Mughal Indian watercolor painting in the 1630s! This copy-of-a-copy wonderfully illustrates the globalization that was beginning to occur in this period. I took the liberty of arranging the three variations end to end so the resemblance could be seen (the Mughal painting is at the far right).<br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PjblWg1W3bM/T57OMq4jhRI/AAAAAAAAA7o/eGVXxkQJ40Y/s1600/John+white+tripled+(moghul+painting+from+British+museum+copy+and+de+bry+copy).png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PjblWg1W3bM/T57OMq4jhRI/AAAAAAAAA7o/eGVXxkQJ40Y/s1600/John+white+tripled+(moghul+painting+from+British+museum+copy+and+de+bry+copy).png" /></a></div>
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White also had a remarkable ability for “zooming out” from a scene to create an imagined isometric perspective. His painting of an Algonquian village stands out as one of the most detailed depictions of indigenous American village life to survive from the sixteenth century.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-px361efN00A/T57O1lv0NVI/AAAAAAAAA74/BoAqCOnAJq0/s1600/6959564064_82083b1a9f_b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-px361efN00A/T57O1lv0NVI/AAAAAAAAA74/BoAqCOnAJq0/s1600/6959564064_82083b1a9f_b.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Village of the Secotan Indians in North Carolina, by John White in 1585. British Museum, London.</td></tr>
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As the detail of the dancing circle in the lower right of this image suggests, White seems to have had a particular interest in Algonquian religious ceremonies. Another painting by White along similar lines gives a precious glimpse of pre-contact American Indian religious practice and daily life:<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ra_VNjjNmWE/T57PBAIq-1I/AAAAAAAAA8A/N2zF3xOmwo0/s1600/6959564674_d21e5220c0_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ra_VNjjNmWE/T57PBAIq-1I/AAAAAAAAA8A/N2zF3xOmwo0/s640/6959564674_d21e5220c0_z.jpg" width="602" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ceremony of Secotan warriors in North Carolina. Watercolour painted by John White in 1585. British Museum, London.</td></tr>
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What, then, was White’s final legacy? In a narrative first printed in Richard Hakluyt’s Voyages, White described his return to Virginia in 1590 in search of the colonists he had left at Roanoke (he had returned to England three years earlier in efforts to obtain “supplies, and other necessities”). His account evokes the haunted landscape of a ghost story, and its eerie details have made it part of American folklore ever since. On the 17th of August, White recalled, three ships under his command reached Roanoke, where they “found no man, nor signe of any that had been there lately.” The next evening, one of White’s sailors spied “a fire through the woods” and the men “sounded a Trumpet, but no answer could we heare.” The light of the next daybreak revealed that this was “nothing but the grasse, and some rotten trees burning.”<br />
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Finally, however, White found evidence of the colonists’ wherabouts. In a tree, he discovered “three faire Roman Letters carved C. R. O.”: this was a pre-arranged maker which White understood “to signifie the place where I should find them”: Croatan. White’s suspicion was confirmed with the discovery of a scene that is now almost mythical:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666;">We found no signe of distresse; then we went to a place where they were left in sundry houses, but we found them all taken downe, and the place strongly inclosed with a high Palizado [i.e. a palisade of wooden stakes], very Fortlike; and in one of the chiefe Posts carved in fayre capitall Letters C R O A T A N, without any signe of distresse, and many barres of Iron… and such like heavie things throwne here and there, overgrowne with grass and weeds…</span></blockquote>
Interestingly, White’s account here connects his two identities as governor and painter. He remarks that his men “found diverse Chests which had been hidden and digged up againe” surrounding the palisade. Among these chests, White was surprised to find objects which he knew “to be my owne”: “books” and “pictures” he had created in the years before, now “scattered up and downe…[and] spoyled.”In the end, White was unable to follow up on these strange clues: storms forced the expedition’s ships to turn back before reaching Croatan, and he returned to Britain with the mystery unresolved. The ultimate fate of the Roanoke colonists continues to be debated. Some have conjectured that White’s fellow colonists may have opted to join a local Algonquian Indian tribe and adapt themselves to the very different (and rather more effective) Amerindian methods of contending with the harsh American landscape.<br />
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It is unlikely that we’ll ever know what happened – but if White’s daughter and granddaughter really did become incorporated into an Indian tribe, it would have made a strange sort of sense. Few sixteenth century Europeans looked upon indigenous Americans with anything other than a jaundiced and prejudiced eye. Yet White’s sensitive and humane portrayals of daily life among the Algonquians tell a different story, and suggest that his own stance toward the native peoples he encountered in the New World was rather more complex. In White’s sensitive depiction of the Algonquian woman and her child holding a European doll, perhaps we can discern a foreshadowing of the hybrid Euro-American fate of his own daughter and grandchild. The intertwined tales of the failed colony White governed, the family he raised, and the artworks he created offer one of the earliest examples of the mingling of cultures that would define the history of the Americas in the centuries to come.<br />
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I'd like to close by sharing some further illustrations, which have been traditionally associated with White. <a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_details.aspx?objectid=728269&partid=1&output=People%2f!!%2fOR%2f!!%2f103070%2f!%2f103070-2-23%2f!%2fAfter+John+White%2f!%2f%2f!!%2f%2f!!!%2f&orig=%2fresearch%2fsearch_the_collection_database%2fadvanced_search.aspx&currentPage=4&numpages=10" target="_blank">According to the British Museum</a>, the traditional attribution of these works as copies after lost originals by John White is debatable. However, even if White was not directly involved in their production, they seemingly still were produced in the Roanoke colony, perhaps by an assistant of Thomas Harriot:<br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666;">In his will, Harriot mentioned his long-time servant Christopher Kellett, a ‘Lymning paynter’, and it is just feasible that these are his work, though his name is not recorded in the list of Lane colonists for 1585–6. It would be natural for a set of these to end up in White’s volume if they did eventually intend to publish them. </span></blockquote>
Interestingly, the famed editor Richard Hakluyt ultimately came into possession of the paintings and provided them to none other than Edward Topsell, a writer on animals whose <i>Historie of Foure-Footed Beastes</i> was the subject of the <a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.pt/2010/05/first-post-history-of-four-footed.html" target="_blank">very first Res Obscura post</a>. All of the following images are owned by the British Museum. See <a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_details.aspx?objectid=728345&partid=1&output=People%2f!!%2fOR%2f!!%2f103070%2f!%2f103070-2-23%2f!%2fAfter+John+White%2f!%2f%2f!!%2f%2f!!!%2f&orig=%2fresearch%2fsearch_the_collection_database%2fadvanced_search.aspx&currentPage=12&numpages=10" target="_blank">here</a> for a further discussion of their provenance and <a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_results.aspx?queryAll=People%2f!!%2fOR%2f!!%2f103070%2f!%2f103070-2-23%2f!%2fAfter+John+White%2f!%2f%2f!!%2f%2f!!!%2f&objectId=728322&partId=1&searchText=Drawn+by+John+White&fromADBC=ad&toADBC=ad&numpages=10&images=on&orig=%2fresearch%2fsearch_the_collection_database.aspx&currentPage=11" target="_blank">here</a> for the complete collection of 117 paintings.<br />
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<li style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Michael Gaudio, <em style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://draft.blogger.com/%3Ca%20href=%22http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0816648476/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0816648476%22%3EEngraving%20the%20Savage:%20The%20New%20World%20and%20Techniques%20of%20Civilization%3C/a%3E%3Cimg%20src=%22http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0816648476%22%20width=%221%22%20height=%221%22%20border=%220%22%20alt=%22%22%20style=%22border:none%20!important;%20margin:0px%20!important;%22%20/%3E" target="_blank">Engraving the Savage: The New World and Techniques of Civilization</a> </em>(University of Minnesota Press, 2008)</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Joyce Chaplin, <em style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674011228/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674011228%22%3ESubject%20Matter:%20Technology,%20the%20Body,%20and%20Science%20on%20the%20Anglo-American%20Frontier,%201500-1676%3C/a%3E%3Cimg%20src=%22http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0674011228%22%20width=%221%22%20height=%221%22%20border=%220%22%20alt=%22%22%20style=%22border:none%20!important;%20margin:0px%20!important;%22%20/%3E" target="_blank">Subject Matter: Technology, the Body, and Science on the Anglo-American Frontier, 1500-1676</a> </em>(Harvard University Press, 2003)</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Daniel Richter, <em style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674011171/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674011171%22%3EFacing%20East%20from%20Indian%20Country:%20A%20Native%20History%20of%20Early%20America%3C/a%3E%3Cimg%20src=%22http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0674011171%22%20width=%221%22%20height=%221%22%20border=%220%22%20alt=%22%22%20style=%22border:none%20!important;%20margin:0px%20!important;%22%20/%3E" target="_blank">Facing East from Indian Country</a></em> (Harvard University Press, 2001)</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: inherit;">Kim Sloan et al,<a href="http://draft.blogger.com/goog_843137440"> </a><em style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0807858250/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0807858250%22%3EA%20New%20World:%20England's%20First%20View%20of%20America%3C/a%3E%3Cimg%20src=%22http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0807858250%22%20width=%221%22%20height=%221%22%20border=%220%22%20alt=%22%22%20style=%22border:none%20!important;%20margin:0px%20!important;%22%20/%3E" target="_blank">A New World: England’s first view of America</a> </em>(University of North Carolina Press, 2007)</span></li>
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</span></div>Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-71900068198999486442012-02-28T10:15:00.001-06:002012-03-07T06:24:12.819-06:00Altered and adorned: an interview with Suzanne Karr Schmidt<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Message box with hand-painted print, Germany, 1490s. Featured in<br />
<a href="http://yalebooks.co.uk/display.asp?K=9780300169119">Suzanne Karr Schmidt and Kimberly Nichols, </a><i><a href="http://yalebooks.co.uk/display.asp?K=9780300169119">Altered and Adorned</a>.</i></td></tr>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;">T</span></b>oday I'm pleased to offer up Res Obscura's very first guest post: an interview conducted by Hasan Niyazi of the popular art history blog <i><a href="http://www.3pipe.net/">Three Pipe Problem</a>. </i>I've been a big fan of this blog since discovering it last year and really enjoy its commitment to unravelling the various mysteries of Renaissance and Baroque visual art. The following is an interview that Hasan of <i>3PP</i> conducted with the art historian <a href="http://www.interactive-prints.org/Suzanne/index.html">Suzanne Karr Schmidt</a>, who received her Ph.D. from Yale University in 2006 and served as the Andrew W. Mellon Curatorial Fellow in <a href="http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/exhibition/renaissanceprints">Prints and Drawings at the Art Institute of Chicago</a>. Schmidt<i> </i>recently co-authored an exhibition catalogue called <i><a href="http://yalebooks.co.uk/display.asp?K=9780300169119">Altered and Adorned: Using Renaissance Prints in Daily Life</a> </i>(Yale University Press, 2011)<i> </i>which examines "how prints were used to create sewing patterns, affixed on walls, glued into albums and books, and in some instances even annotated, handcoloured, or cut apart."<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-CaSFKjPQq_0/T0znxHFN_AI/AAAAAAAAA5c/iFCcemQNLoQ/s1600/Ortus+sanitatis.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-CaSFKjPQq_0/T0znxHFN_AI/AAAAAAAAA5c/iFCcemQNLoQ/s320/Ortus+sanitatis.jpeg" width="231" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Frontispiece, <i>Hortus Sanitatis</i>, 1491.</td></tr>
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On a personal level, I've been fascinated by this topic ever since I examined an exceptional 15th century book (these oldest of all printed works are called <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incunable">incunabula</a></i>) held by the <a href="http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/">Harry Ransom Center</a> at UT Austin called the <a href="http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/libraries/rare/treasures/tour-hor.html"><i>Hortus Sanitatis </i>or "Garden of Health."</a> This 1491 bestiary and herbal was printed by none other than the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Sch%C3%B6ffer">right-hand man of Gutenberg himself</a> and features (in the HRC copy, at least) incredibly beautiful hand-painted prints. The Harvard copy, which also features hand-painted illustrations, is available online <a href="http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/7236253?n=720&printThumbnails=true">here</a>. Just holding such an ancient and rare object in my hands was a remarkable experience. I noted on the first page of this particular copy that it had been signed by an owner from 1577 named Thomas Lasse, and found that this owner had annotated the work throughout with elaborate quotes and the occasional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_(typography)">manicule</a>. As I turned to the section on sea creatures, I was stunned to find that this Elizabethan owner had gone one step further - he had actually replaced a page of the book relating to mer-folk with his own careful drawing of a mermaid! No scan of the HRC edition exists online, but this is the original page that Thomas Lasse replaced with a hand-drawn version:<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cgIIxZewquw/T0zzZaXIiGI/AAAAAAAAA58/MQ-PDPNy888/s1600/hortus+merman.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="498" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cgIIxZewquw/T0zzZaXIiGI/AAAAAAAAA58/MQ-PDPNy888/s640/hortus+merman.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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(As an aside, observant readers might note that the <i>Hortus Sanitatis</i> mermaid appears to be the <a href="http://www.gotmedieval.com/2010/08/the-other-starbucks-mermaid-cover-up.html">direct ancestor of the Starbucks logo</a> - which was famously toned down from the slightly risque early modern original in the 1980s and '90s.)<br />
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What does all of this have to do with Suzanne Karr Schmidt's book, you might ask? After pondering the case of the missing mer-creatures for an hour or two, it occurred to me that there might be a surprisingly mundane reason why this particular page had been torn from the book at some point prior to 1577: someone wanted to put a mermaid on their wall. Early printed books were very expensive, but prints and woodcuts in the early modern period were not treated with nearly the degree of museum-instilled reverence we give them today. Prints were portable decorations which became part of everyday life: they were frequently torn from books and broadsheets and pasted on walls of taverns, workplaces and homes. This is something you can see quite clearly in details of Dutch paintings -- for instance in the <a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2011/01/alchemists-at-home.html">paintings of the domestic life of alchemists</a> I highlighted in an earlier post:</div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-G4UJFLPizmU/T0z1z-sB5VI/AAAAAAAAA6U/B3dAsxAqenU/s1600/Screen+Shot+2012-02-28+at+3.41.15+PM.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="560" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-G4UJFLPizmU/T0z1z-sB5VI/AAAAAAAAA6U/B3dAsxAqenU/s640/Screen+Shot+2012-02-28+at+3.41.15+PM.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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In essence, then, the mermaid from this <a href="http://www.christies.com/LotFinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=4987808">virtually priceless</a> book may once have been the sixteenth century version of a poster on a teenagers wall.<br />
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So with no further adieu, I'm happy to present the following interview between Hasan Niyazi (HN) and Suzanne Karr Schmidt (SKS).<br />
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<i>In December 2011, 3PP posted a review of </i>Altered and Adorned<i> - an exhibition catalogue by Suzanne Karr Schmidt and Kimberly Nichols. Inspired by the visually rich and accessible volume, 3PP sought to interview its author and delve a bit more deeply into the fascinating world of Renaissance prints.
Suzanne Karr Schmidt is a US based artist and art historian. In 2008 she was appointed as the Andrew W. Mellon Curatorial Fellow at the Art Institute of Chicago (AIC) - which resulted in the aforementioned exhibition and </i><a href="http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300169119" style="font-style: italic;" target="_blank">catalogue</a><i> publication distributed by Yale University Press.
3PP's full review can be read </i><a href="http://www.3pipe.net/2011/12/renaissance-prints-in-daily-life.html" style="font-style: italic;" target="_blank">here</a><i>. -</i>HN<br />
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<b><span style="color: #990000;">HN:</span> What sparked your personal interest in Renaissance prints - both as an artist and as an art historian?</b><br />
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SKS: I've always loved books, with a children's author (my mother, <a href="http://www.childrensbookguild.org/kathleen-karr">Kathleen Karr</a>) in the family. I was a double major in art history and studio art as an undergraduate at Brown University, which included a fantastic etching class. I initially decided to work on Renaissance art, specifically from Northern Europe, when I went to graduate school at Yale University. I settled on prints instead of paintings or other media when a seminar paper that would become my doctoral dissertation on early modern paper engineering (read: the <a href="http://www.robertsabuda.com/everythingpopup/suzannekarr.asp">Renaissance Pop-Up Book</a>) allowed me to spend time going through boxes and boxes of nearly unseen prints throughout Europe. The fact that there are still unknown prints out there was and remains very important. Prints are the last art-historical frontier, where there are discoveries still to be made.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #990000;">HN:</span> You were appointed Mellon Curatorial Fellow at the AIC in 2008 - what does this role involve?</b><br />
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SKS: This three-year position is one of two at the Art Institute of Chicago generously funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. The program (which is also active at the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C., the Philadelphia Museum of Art, and other U.S. art museums) is intended to interest postdoctoral scholars in museum work rather than just university positions. The fellows assume the duties of assistant curators in departments museum-wide, usually complete a culminating project (in my case the Altered and Adorned exhibition and catalogue), and are actively engaged in all aspects of building, exhibiting, publishing, and maintaining the collection. All in all, it's a fantastic opportunity for scholars who prefer hands-on engagement with objects and exhibitions to teaching, and the museums get a recent Ph.D as a fully-funded new member of their staff.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;"><b>HN:</b></span><b> How accessible were Renaissance Prints to different levels of society? Is it mainly through collectors that they have survived?</b><br />
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SKS: I research a wide variety of Renaissance prints--from fine engravings that would certainly have been more expensive and kept relatively safe by collectors--to more ephemeral wall hangings and broadsides sporting texts about current events and cruder woodcuts. The cheaper ones were probably printed in the greatest numbers, but are now the rarest. Many were collected almost accidentally (as bookmarks, for instance), though there have thankfully been early modern collectors of broadsides as well. Their stark attrition initially stemmed from their size and purpose--to be posted where the literate could read the texts for the illiterate (who could also enjoy the pictures). Not every print would have been accessible to every level of society, but there are plenty of seventeenth-century Dutch paintings of 'Twelfth Night' parties where farmers or middle-class revelers gather for the Epiphany feast to crown a king with a printed paper hat, and some uncut sheets still survive.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;">HN:</span><b> Can you explain anything of the provenance of the mysterious "messenger box" acquired by the AIC - and why it remains so well preserved?</b><br />
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SKS: The "messenger box" was sold at auction in 2007 from the collection of a prominent Paris bookseller, who had amassed some 25 of these boxes with prints in them over his long career in the book trade. Prior to that owner, very little is known, though art historians begin to discuss these hybrid artworks in the early 20th century. Before then, they were evidently ignored as decorative but not necessarily fine-art objects. They have also sometimes been interpreted as boxes for missals and other religious books, which could explain why a book dealer came across so many.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;">HN:</span><b> Do you see parallels with the explosion in the distribution of knowledge via Renaissance prints with our own information age?</b><br />
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SKS: I absolutely do. The change from a manuscript culture to a printed one didn't mean there were suddenly multiple copies of books where there had previously been none, just that the speed of replication was much faster. Literacy eventually improved as well. Even with images, copying was rampant, and printed images could go viral, as in the many, many versions of Dürer's portrait of a rhinoceros he'd never seen, but which became the unshakable image of what such a beast should, theoretically, look like. Not all visual information was necessarily trustworthy, even if it was in print before the days of Photoshop. On a more specific level, printed scientific instruments offered replaceable gadgetry that was relatively cutting edge. (These appear in greater numbers in another exhibition I've worked on recently, <a href="http://www.northwestern.edu/newscenter/stories/2011/12/prints-block-museum-art.html" target="_blank">Prints and the Pursuit of Knowledge in Early Modern Europe, at Northwestern University's Block Museum</a>, until April 8.) The folding pocket sundials (some with cheap printed veneers) are like an early modern iPhone, and could tell time among other calculating bells and whistles. Some had maps on their back with built-in latitude charts (essential for telling local time).<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;">HN:</span><b> Artists like Dürer, Raphael and Titian embraced the use of prints - producing unique designs in printed media alone. Can they be viewed as multimedia pioneers - or was their utilisation of printed media typical for artists of the era?</b><br />
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SKS: These artists were absolutely pioneers, with an explicit intention to disseminate their works via prints. Dürer in fact lamented that he had not diversified with prints sooner, as painting was a much more painstaking process with a limited amount of exposure, especially if the commission were for a private owner rather than for display in a church or town hall. Dürer is still considered to have engraved his own intaglio prints (though not cut his own woodblocks) however, which is slightly different than the workshop effect of Raphael and Titian where others translated the designs into print. The Dürer-Marcantonio Raimondi (the main artist who engraved Raphael's work) lawsuit in Venice, in which Raimondi was fined for using Dürer's monogram, but not for copying his images, shows some of the growing pains of the new media.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-22En5NngsfE/T0z6Kk8Hi4I/AAAAAAAAA6k/DvJ-plmqr5Y/s1600/Eve+Kilian+Resized.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="568" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-22En5NngsfE/T0z6Kk8Hi4I/AAAAAAAAA6k/DvJ-plmqr5Y/s640/Eve+Kilian+Resized.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A foldout print from the <i>Altered and Adorned</i> exhibit: Lucas Kilian's Third Vision (Eve), <br />
anatomical flap print from <i>Mirrors of the Microcosm</i>, 1613</td></tr>
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<br /></div>Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-89208150156826190302012-01-23T06:17:00.001-06:002012-01-25T17:41:51.160-06:00Early Modern Alchemy: Heinrich Khunrath's "Amphitheater of Eternal Knowledge"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ApbRhbgPdGw/Tx0-JprVHmI/AAAAAAAAA4o/JCgYk-gQJa0/s1600/Alchemist%2527s+ampitheatre.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="634" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ApbRhbgPdGw/Tx0-JprVHmI/AAAAAAAAA4o/JCgYk-gQJa0/s640/Alchemist%2527s+ampitheatre.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="color: #666666; font-size: large;"><i>"While these Discontents continued, severall Letters past between Queene Elizabeth and Doctor Dee, whereby perhaps he might promise to returne; At length it so fell out, that he left Trebona and took his Iourney for England. The ninth of Aprill he came to Breame… Here that famous Hermetique Philosopher, Dr Henricus Khunrath of Hamburgh came to visit him."</i> </span><span style="color: #666666;">- Elias Ashmole, <i><a href="http://ouroboros-press.bookarts.org/portfolio/theatrum-chemicum-britannicum-2/">Theatrum Chemicum Brittanicum</a></i>, (London, 1652), cited in Frances Yates' <i><a href="http://books.google.pt/books?id=MTvjkifGp04C&pg=PA51&lpg=PA51&dq=yates+khunrath&source=bl&ots=ncaFjxLmKk&sig=wsRWJxGUczKercYfdyKeiv-MZ28&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WT4dT9raKMKfOoOm0fkC&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">The Rosicrucian Enlightenment</a></i></span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-large;">I</span>'M</b> a bit obsessed with the Elizabethan occult author <a href="http://www.amazon.com/John-Dees-Conversations-Angels-Alchemy/dp/0521027489?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&link_code=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969" target="_blank">John Dee</a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969&o=1&a=0521027489" style="border: medium none ! important; margin: 0px ! important; padding: 0px ! important;" width="1" /> <img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969&o=1&a=0521027489" style="border: medium none ! important; margin: 0px ! important; padding: 0px ! important;" width="1" />(even wrote a good chunk of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dee">his Wikipedia page</a>), but I know very little about the man who the famed historian <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Occult-Philosophy-Elizabethan-Routledge-Classics/dp/0415254094?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&link_code=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969" target="_blank">Frances Yates</a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ro067-20&l=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969&o=1&a=0415254094" style="border: medium none ! important; margin: 0px ! important; padding: 0px ! important;" width="1" /> considered to be the critical link between Dee and the Continental tradition of European alchemy, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Khunrath">Heinrich Khunrath</a>. Last year I came across some of the book plates from Khunrath's occult work <i>Ampitheatrum Sapientiae Aeternae</i> (Hamburg, 1595), or "The Amphitheater of Eternal Knowledge," and was floored by their complexity and beauty. Remarkably, only three copies of the first edition of this work are known to exist. The University of Wisconsin Library has been good enough to scan the images of its copy and make them <a href="http://specialcollections.library.wisc.edu/khunrath/thumbs.html">available online</a> along with an excellent critical history of the book (<a href="http://specialcollections.library.wisc.edu/khunrath/index.html">here</a>). The same site also offers a good overview of the little that is known about <a href="http://specialcollections.library.wisc.edu/khunrath/bio.html">Khunrath's biography</a>.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_bOmMbyE0UnI/TAkatovt7GI/AAAAAAAAAFU/LA73WPqmnU8/s1600/rosefig1750.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_bOmMbyE0UnI/TAkatovt7GI/AAAAAAAAAFU/LA73WPqmnU8/s640/rosefig1750.jpg" width="627" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"The Cosmic Rose"</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_bOmMbyE0UnI/TAkbGybQ7bI/AAAAAAAAAFc/2Q1qMJ9R9fo/s1600/hermfig1750.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_bOmMbyE0UnI/TAkbGybQ7bI/AAAAAAAAAFc/2Q1qMJ9R9fo/s640/hermfig1750.jpg" width="626" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"The Hermaphrodite."</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rMw5HKzWUF8/Tx09bZT1PLI/AAAAAAAAA4Y/tDb_EKnPlj8/s1600/Amphitheatrum_sapientiae_aeternae_-_Alchemist%2527s_Laboratory.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rMw5HKzWUF8/Tx09bZT1PLI/AAAAAAAAA4Y/tDb_EKnPlj8/s640/Amphitheatrum_sapientiae_aeternae_-_Alchemist%2527s_Laboratory.jpg" width="628" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"The Alchemist's Laboratory." Each object bears a Latin motto offering advice<br />
for the alchemical adept. For instance, the still reads <i>FESTINA LENTE </i><br />
("hasten slowly"), the personal motto of Emperor Augustus.</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-hR6LlLs5LHA/Tx1CtvOFBTI/AAAAAAAAA4w/BXDW-3FZ4_M/s1600/Khunrath+four+res.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="604" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-hR6LlLs5LHA/Tx1CtvOFBTI/AAAAAAAAA4w/BXDW-3FZ4_M/s640/Khunrath+four+res.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"The Four, the Three, the Two, the One."</td></tr>
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Remarkably these already exceptionally detailed images originally appeared surrounded by cryptic Latin text. Take "The Hermaphrodite" image displayed above, for example:<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-R1UEoMw5nTM/Tx1DNSxW4GI/AAAAAAAAA44/gbeH-3zD6Js/s1600/hermtxt1750.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-R1UEoMw5nTM/Tx1DNSxW4GI/AAAAAAAAA44/gbeH-3zD6Js/s640/hermtxt1750.jpg" width="630" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Click image for a much larger version. Transcription of the text <a href="http://specialcollections.library.wisc.edu/khunrath/hermdis.html">here</a>.</td></tr>
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A detail from the same image:<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-KdhZDadZXWY/Tx1JWTv7SaI/AAAAAAAAA5A/7se4G7xwgfA/s1600/REs+herm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-KdhZDadZXWY/Tx1JWTv7SaI/AAAAAAAAA5A/7se4G7xwgfA/s640/REs+herm.jpg" width="534" /></a></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Rxt-91QJ7yQ/Tx1K-pknlsI/AAAAAAAAA5I/Qs5gU8_c5hI/s1600/monad1.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Rxt-91QJ7yQ/Tx1K-pknlsI/AAAAAAAAA5I/Qs5gU8_c5hI/s200/monad1.gif" width="147" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dee's <i>Monas Hieroglyphica</i><br />
(London, 1564), frotispiece.</td></tr>
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Here we get a sense of the bafflingly complex nature of these images. The figure of the <a href="http://www.levity.com/alchemy/hermaph.html">hermaphrodite as a metaphor</a> for the dualistic nature of the universe and the human body is a common one in alchemical imagery. Likewise, the sun and moon are frequently used to symbolize the male and female natures inherent in different elements (the sun is gold/male, the moon female/silver, etc.) The black peacock labelled "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azoth">AZOTH</a>" leads us deeper into Hermetic territory. Azoth was the hypothesized universal solvent, the "ultimate substance" which could transform all elements. Here it seems to be used to convey the union of male and female (and of all elements) which would allow the corporeal human form to transcend to a divine plane (note the symbol of the trinity above the peacock feathers, which resemble diagrams of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_spheres">celestial spheres</a>). To top it all off, the "O" in "Azoth" made out of John Dee's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monas_Hieroglyphica">"hieroglyphic monad"</a>!<br />
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So what are we to make of all this? Quite a few scholars have examined Khunrath's <i>Ampitheatre</i>. In her book <i><a href="http://books.google.pt/books?id=ZJox8Eh-gs8C&pg=PR20&lpg=PR20&dq=yates+khunrath&source=bl&ots=j-8vgJWDgQ&sig=f_zP_wJXqzwrC3u9P3FAb6_hy2w&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WT4dT9raKMKfOoOm0fkC&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=yates%20khunrath&f=false">The Alchemy of Light</a></i>, Urszula Szulakowska, for instance, argues that the engravings in Khunrath's texts<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
are intended to excite the imagination of the viewer so that a mystic alchemy can take place through the act of visual contemplation… Khunrath's theatre of images, like a mirror, catoptrically reflects the celestial spheres to the human mind, awakening the empathetic faculty of the human spirit which unites, through the imagination, with the heavenly realms. Thus, the visual imagery of Khunrath's treatises has become the alchemical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)">quintessence</a>, the spiritualized matter of the philosopher's stone (9).</blockquote>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-FRYTSTL2ziE/Tx1OTXii-7I/AAAAAAAAA5Q/EZgBzHKeIt4/s1600/Khunrath.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-FRYTSTL2ziE/Tx1OTXii-7I/AAAAAAAAA5Q/EZgBzHKeIt4/s200/Khunrath.jpg" width="170" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A 17th century portrait engraving of<br />
Khunrath.</td></tr>
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The images, in other words, invite the viewer to engage in a meditation on the nature of the universe and on the links between the earthly and the divine, the corporeal and the spiritual. Of course, such a statement would be equally true of many other instances of early modern alchemical and Hermetic symbolism. I suspect that a lot of the meaning in these images and the text that accompanies them has actually been lost, due to the fact that alchemical practice depended upon face-to-face interactions (like the one between John Dee and Khunrath) which were never recorded. And this was precisely what was intended - the true secrets of early modern alchemy were intended for a small number of the "elect" and were elaborately concealed in complex and often inscrutable language when they were allowed into printed works.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the visual interest of these magnificent images is arguably all the greater owing to the unknowable mysteries that now surround their creation and meaning.<br />
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</div>Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7127478842802304833.post-72565813826827049952012-01-10T09:17:00.001-06:002012-01-29T07:24:11.189-06:00American Monsters: Images of Brazilian Nature from Early Modern Europe<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-eo5qHAeBKOI/Tww9jrMQuVI/AAAAAAAAA3Y/xuSrS8WpZZY/s1600/res+turtles+brazil+albert+eckhout+res.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-eo5qHAeBKOI/Tww9jrMQuVI/AAAAAAAAA3Y/xuSrS8WpZZY/s640/res+turtles+brazil+albert+eckhout+res.jpg" width="635" /></a></div>
<i><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #666666;">"The most disgusting and nauseating thing which man ever saw."</span> </span></i><br />
-Spanish chronicler <a href="http://books.google.pt/books?id=GuxL0-_scLwC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=%22The+most+disgusting+and+nauseating+thing+which+man+ever+saw.%22&source=bl&ots=iC6YS-aavq&sig=VAkqDk_tjgXButpDcjX4mLlQxiE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5j0MT-zFNsiq8APc_8XpBQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22The%20most%20disgusting%20and%20nauseating%20thing%20which%20man%20ever%20saw.%22&f=false">Andres Bernaldez</a> on Christopher Columbus' first impression of Caribbean iguanas, 1513.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;">I</span><span style="font-size: large;">N</span></b> HIS BOOK <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0226306526">Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World</a></i>, Harvard literature professor Stephen Greenblatt argues that "the production of a sense of the marvelous in the New World is at the very center of virtually all of Columbus's writings about his discoveries, though the meaning of that sense shifts over the years." Greenblatt thinks that Columbus emphasized wonders and marvels "because marvels are inseparably bound up in rhetorical and pictorial tradition with voyages to the Indies. To affirm the 'marvelous' nature of the discoveries is, even without the lucrative shipments yet on board, to make good on the claim to have reached the fabled realms of gold and spices." Yet Greenblatt doesn't devote much space in his book to the flip side of the "marvelous": the monstrous.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">A</span>s Iberian voyages of "discovery" segued into expeditions of conquest and settlement over the course of the sixteenth century, Europeans increasingly visualized the New World as a land of bizarre torments, freakish monsters and outlandish civilizations in thrall to the devil.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HE2xeLjuPB4/TwxKC_OtluI/AAAAAAAAA4E/ljKan9pOde0/s1600/dieppe+atlas+brazil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="185" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HE2xeLjuPB4/TwxKC_OtluI/AAAAAAAAA4E/ljKan9pOde0/s320/dieppe+atlas+brazil.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Map of Brasil, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieppe_maps">Dieppe School</a>, 1547. Click to see<br />
much larger version.</td></tr>
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Spanish interpretations of the religious practices they encountered in the lands of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_Triple_Alliance">Aztec Triple Alliance</a> have attracted the majority of historians interested in how Europeans expressed fear, apprehension and disgust -- as well as wonder -- toward the Americas (see below for some recommendations). The pictures below show that monsters and the monstrous were also depicted in the context of Portuguese Brazil. I'm particularly interested in how the incredible biodiversity of Amazonia was initially interpreted by European observers who had seen nothing to rival it in their temperate homelands. Although comparisons to the Garden of Eden were frequent, these images also reveal a profound anxiety about the abundance of nature in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neotropic_ecozone">Neotropics</a>. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-74DYR2c6no0/TwxIhLUmyDI/AAAAAAAAA30/uFYDJ6NGr4w/s1600/de+bry+brasil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="380" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-74DYR2c6no0/TwxIhLUmyDI/AAAAAAAAA30/uFYDJ6NGr4w/s640/de+bry+brasil.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Flemish engraver <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_de_Bry">Theodor de Bry</a>'s vision of Brazil mingles outlandish sea creatures with<br />
flying devils who torment the Tupí Indian villagers at lower right. Theodor de Bry, <i>Americae </i><br />
<i>tertia pars</i> (Frankfurt, 1592)</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-GXfSRriR65c/Tww9fSbtQkI/AAAAAAAAA2o/ST2iUHT4y68/s1600/Dieppe+atlas+detail+birds+res.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="468" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-GXfSRriR65c/Tww9fSbtQkI/AAAAAAAAA2o/ST2iUHT4y68/s640/Dieppe+atlas+detail+birds+res.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Birds of paradise feature in this detail from the 1547 Dieppe map of Brazil linked above.</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-CEdv1TyfYlE/Tww9gfExMLI/AAAAAAAAA2w/9k8NchUGwf4/s1600/dieppe+detail+hunting+lions%253F+res.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="438" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-CEdv1TyfYlE/Tww9gfExMLI/AAAAAAAAA2w/9k8NchUGwf4/s640/dieppe+detail+hunting+lions%253F+res.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tupí Indians hunt leonine creatures, probably reflecting early accounts of jaguars. Another detail.</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-o6ZUH5WcI4w/Tww9hNitPsI/AAAAAAAAA24/GBepkMeuxRQ/s1600/dieppe+detail+res+turtles.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-o6ZUH5WcI4w/Tww9hNitPsI/AAAAAAAAA24/GBepkMeuxRQ/s640/dieppe+detail+res+turtles.jpg" width="632" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">In the same pictorial field, villagers lounge while two tortoises amble by.</td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-7kG-HcgAOiE/Tww9icHGb6I/AAAAAAAAA3I/k8mztqzGq2w/s1600/Eckhout-Albert-Two-Brazilian-tortoises-Sun.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="378" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-7kG-HcgAOiE/Tww9icHGb6I/AAAAAAAAA3I/k8mztqzGq2w/s640/Eckhout-Albert-Two-Brazilian-tortoises-Sun.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">During the Dutch occupation of parts of Brazil in the 1640-60 period, a number of highly <br />
skilled painters visited the new colony to record their impressions of its flora and fauna. <br />
In this 1665 painting by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eckhout">Albert Eckhout</a>, two dueling tortoises recall the pair in the detail <br />
from the Dieppe map above.</td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;">D</span>espite their skill in visual representation, however, Dutch artists were often at least as fanciful in their depictions of South American monsters as their French and Iberian peers. The engravings below, selected from the Dutch author Arnoldus Montanus' 1671 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Nieuwe_en_Onbekende_Weereld"><i>De Nieuwe en Onbekende Weereld </i>(The New and Unknown World)</a>, offer a positively bizarre take on American animals and peoples. </div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ErNB7EWM8yM/TwxPoOAzIEI/AAAAAAAAA4M/cjwQd8eOo-0/s1600/22.48+Prints+-+Brasil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="530" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ErNB7EWM8yM/TwxPoOAzIEI/AAAAAAAAA4M/cjwQd8eOo-0/s640/22.48+Prints+-+Brasil.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5MtPUk0IG24/Tww9NONvQCI/AAAAAAAAA18/hahdg1LN-9U/s1600/america+monsters+res+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="548" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5MtPUk0IG24/Tww9NONvQCI/AAAAAAAAA18/hahdg1LN-9U/s640/america+monsters+res+2.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-eKFTmfSS2u0/Tww9kfm0eEI/AAAAAAAAA3k/kZ1JFuxUDDQ/s1600/sacrifice+america+res.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="574" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-eKFTmfSS2u0/Tww9kfm0eEI/AAAAAAAAA3k/kZ1JFuxUDDQ/s640/sacrifice+america+res.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1jna7FH9vI8/Tww9hhb9dTI/AAAAAAAAA3A/qOzLyLn80BQ/s1600/draco+res.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1jna7FH9vI8/Tww9hhb9dTI/AAAAAAAAA3A/qOzLyLn80BQ/s640/draco+res.jpg" width="638" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The "draco" (dragon) in this one bears a passing resemblance to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny_Haniver">"Jenny Hanivers"</a> and <br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_monk">"Sea Monks"</a> of early modern sailors' lore.</td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;">E</span>uropeans were also fascinated and fearful of the "monstrous" forms of indigenous Brazilians themselves. Although most accounts remarked upon the good health, longevity and physique of Tupí Indians and other indigenous societies in Brazil (probably a reflection more of the poor health and diet of the European mariners than anything else), others focused on their tendency toward body-modification. The most entertaining and strange European take on piercing and tattooing I have been able to find is John Bulwer's fantastically titled <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bulwer#Anthropometamorphosis">Anthropometamorphosis</a>: Man Transform’d, or the Artificial Changeling. Historically presented, in the mad and cruel Gallantry, foolish Bravery, ridiculous Beauty, filthy Fineness, and loathesome Loveliness of most Nations, fashioning & altering their Bodies from the Mould intended by Nature. With a Vindication of the Regular Beauty and Honesty of Nature, and an Appendix of the Pedigree of the English Gallant</i>. (London: J. Hardesty, 1650). (I wrote about this a bit in <a href="http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2011/04/for-they-are-very-expert-and-skillful.html">an earlier post</a>). Below he describes how "the <i>Brasileans</i>... are pricked within the flesh" with paint.</div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Oe0V8q79MMc/Tww9PoU58hI/AAAAAAAAA2U/G9rRx7rOqYM/s1600/Bulwer-1653-459.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Oe0V8q79MMc/Tww9PoU58hI/AAAAAAAAA2U/G9rRx7rOqYM/s640/Bulwer-1653-459.jpg" width="494" /></a></div>
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Bulwer's title page takes this a step further, showing an Amerindian figure sporting some truly remarkable tattoos! The European woman with facial tattoos to the figure's left highlights Bulwer's concern that this "barbarous" custom would become fashionable with his own countrymen (he was right, but it would take another three hundred years or so to really catch on, and the whole "face on a butt" tattoo fad seems to still lie in the future).</div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-z6rF-Oy4KBI/Tww9OqWo9KI/AAAAAAAAA2M/HYn66aqdx5U/s1600/artificial+changling+res.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-z6rF-Oy4KBI/Tww9OqWo9KI/AAAAAAAAA2M/HYn66aqdx5U/s640/artificial+changling+res.jpg" width="560" /></a></div>
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Readers wanting to learn more about the role of the devil and the monstrous in European interpretations of Amerindian societies might want to start with Fernando Cervantes' <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0300068891/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0300068891">The Devil in the New World</a> </i>and Jorge Canizares-Esguerra's <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0804742804/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0804742804">Puritan Conquistadors</a></i>. Greenblatt's <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0226306526/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0226306526">Marvelous Possessions</a></i>, quoted above, is a great study of how the fantastical and marvelous figured into colonization, while Joyce Chaplin's <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674011228/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674011228">Subject Matter: Technology, the Body and Science on the Anglo-American Frontier</a></i>, revises and critiques his claims in various interesting ways. Those interested in New World nature and particularly animals should check out <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0754607798/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=ro067-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0754607798">A New World of Animals: Early Modern Europeans on the Creatures of Iberian America</a></i> Miguel de Asua and Roger French, a fun, learned and highly-entertaining book (from which I stole the quote on iguanas that opens this post). </div>
</div>Benjamin Breenhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11900877607660032582noreply@blogger.com3